ILLINOIS  STATE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


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Orri  n     </■  Hen-best: 


STATE  OF  ILLINOIS 

DEPARTMENT  OF  REGISTRATION  AND  EDUCATION 

DIVISION  OF  THE 

STATE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

FRANK  W.  DE  WOLF,  Chief 

BULLETIN  No.  39 


THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF  CAMP  GRANT 


BY 


ROLLIN  D.  SALISBURY  and  HARLAN  H.  BARROWS 


PRINTED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  ILLINOIS 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS 
1918 


STATE  OF  ILLINOIS 

DEPARTMENT  OF  REGISTRATION  AND  EDUCATION 
DIVISION  OF  THE 

STATE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

FRANK  W.  DE  WOLF,  Chief 

BULLETIN  No.  39 


THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF  CAMP  GRANT 


BY 


ROLLIN  D.  SALISBURY  and  HARLAN  H.  BARROWS 


PRINTED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  ILLINOIS 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS 
1918 


STATE  OF  ILLINOIS 

DEPARTMENT  OF  REGISTRATION  AND  EDUCATION 
DIVISION  OF  THE 

STATE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

Frank  W.  DeWolf,  Chief 

Committee    of   the    Board   of   Natural   Resources 
and  Conservation 

Francis  W.  Shepardson,  Chairman 

Director  of  Registration  and  Education 


David   Kinley 

Representing  the  President  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois 


Thomas  C.  Chamberlin 
Geologist 


,£'■ 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


Geological  Survey  Division, 
May  6,  1918. 

Francis  W.  Shepardson,  Chairman,  and  Members  of  the 
Board  of  Natural  Resources  and  Conservation, 

Gentlemen: — I  submit  herewith  a  report  on  the  Environment  of 
Camp  Grant  and  recommend  that  it  be  published  as  Bulletin  No.  39.  The 
purpose  is  to  describe  and  interpret  the  topography  and  geology  of  the 
region  in  which  men  are  being  trained  intensively  for  service  abroad. 

Modern  armies  find  that  the  physical  features  of  the  earth  are  of 
great  strategic  importance,  in  spite  of  aviation,  tractor  engines,  and  im- 
provements in  artillery.  Laymen  do  not  appreciate  at  first  that  routes  for 
movements  of  armies  are  still  selected  with  reference  to  mountain  and 
river  barriers;  that  sharpness  of  slope  controls  the  movement  of  artillery, 
cavalry,  tractors,  and  of  infantry;  that  swampy  river-flats  and  dominant 
hills  and  cliffs  are  chosen  for  defensive  lines;  that  the  details  of  topo- 
graphy determine  suitable  landing  places  for  airplanes,  and  in  some  cases 
the  effectiveness  of  gas  warfare;  and  finally,  that  the  character  and  the 
depth  of  loose  surface  soil  and  subsoil  make  it  possible  or  impossible  to 
dig  trenches  quickly,  and  to  maintain  them  effectively. 

The  report  is  accompanied  by  four  topographic  maps  covering  about 
1,000  square  miles,  and  by  numerous  illustrations  which  in  other  ways 
display  the  physical  features  and  their  significance. 

The  authors,  Professors  R.  D.  Salisbury  and  H.  H.  Barrows  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  do  not  pretend  to  be  military  men,  but  are  geo- 
graphers and  geologists  with  broad  experience.  They  point  out  the  variety 
of  natural  features  which  may  be  utilized  in  training  and  maneuvering, 
and  by  explaining  the  origin  of  local  features,  assist  in  an  understanding 
of  those  which  will  be  seen  abroad. 

The  report  is  one  of  several  which  were  undertaken  at  various  army 
camps  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Geology  and  Paleontology  Committee  of  the 
National  Research  Council,  after  conferences  with  prominent  military  men. 

Very  respectfully, 

Frank  W.  DeWolp,  Chief. 

(3) 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Foreword     ~ 7 

Chapter  I. — Physical  features  9 

Location  and  topography   9 

The  larger  valleys 12 

Rock  River  Valley 12 

Pecatonica  River  Valley 12 

The  Kishwaukee  Valleys 14 

Peculiarities  of  the  larger  valleys 16 

Minor   valleys . 16 

Streams    17 

Ground-water   17 

Climate    18 

Chapter  II. — Points  of  military  significance 23 

Barriers   23 

Ridges  and  slopes 24 

Roads  and  road  metal 25 

Problems  of  trenching  and  tunneling 27 

Water  supply 30 

Gas  problems  34 

Timber 34 

Summary    ,  35 

Chapter  III. — The  history  of  the  land 36 

The  bed  rock 36 

A  long  period  of  erosion 38 

The  Glacial  Period  and  the  drift 39 

The  development  of  existing  valleys 44 

Rock  River  Valley 44 

The  valley  of  the  Pecatonica 47 

The  valley  of  the  Kishwaukee  48 

Minor   valleys    49 

Minor  changes  of  post-glacial  times 49 

Drainage  of  basins   50 

Wind  work . 50 

Leaching ,. 51 

Summary  of  recent  changes 51 

Chapter  IV. — Nature  and  man  in  the  Rockford  region 53 

The  Black  Hawk  War  53 

The  settlement  of  the  region 54 

Sources  of  settlers;  emigrant  travel 55 

Growth  of  population 55 

Distribution  of  early  population   56 

Early   Rockford    57 

Other  early  towns  59 

(4) 


Chapter  IV. — Nature  and  man  in  the  Rockford  region — continued. 

Conditions  of  pioneer  life  59 

Early  privations  59 

Pioneer  farming 60 

Markets 61 

Mills;   early  manufactures  62 

Improvement  of  travel  and  transportation 62 

The  road  system  of  the  area 62 

Importance  of  improved  transportation  to  outside  markets 63 

Rock  River  as  a  highway 63 

Rockford  stage  lines 66 

The  railroads 67 

Progress  since  the  advent  of  railroads 69 

The  railroads  and  the  new  era 69 

Agriculture  71 

Modern  Rockford  71 

Appendix — Explanation  of  maps 73 


(5) 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATE  PAGE] 

I.     Sketch  of  an  area  about  Camp  Grant,  showing  the  general  topography 12 

II.     Sketch  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Pecatonica  Flats  and  their  surround- 
ings    14 

FIGURE 

1.  The  relative  positions  of  the  four  accompanying  maps 8 

2.  Cross-section  of  the  Kishwaukee  Valley  above  New  Milford 10 

3.  Cross-section  of  Rock  River  Valley  6  miles  north  of  Rockford . 13 

4.  Cross-section  of  Rock  River  Valley  3  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  Kish- 

waukee    13 

5.  Cross-section  of  Rock  River  Valley  near  the  north  edge  of  Camp  Grant, 

showing  sub-structure 13 

6.  Cross-section  of  the  Pecatonica  Valley  about  4  miles  west  of  Rockton 14 

7.  Cross-section  of  the  valley  of  Kishwaukee  River  at  Cherry  Valley 15 

8.  Cross-section  of  Killbuck  Creek  Valley  a  mile  below  Lindenwood 15 

9.  Cross-section  of  a  small  tributary  valley  3  miles  west  of  Camp  Grant 16 

10.  Diagram  showing  the  relations  of  the  water-table  to  the  surface 18 

11.  Temperature  curve  for  Rockford ,_  19 

12.  Graph  showing  precipitation  for  Winnebago 20 

13.  Temperature  curve  for  Lille,  Prance . 21 

14.  Graph  showing  precipitation  for  Douai,  France 21 

15.  Diagram  showing  one  method  of  trench-drainage . 27 

16.  Diagram  to  illustrate  a  possible  source  of  contamination  in  wells 30 

17.  Profile  showing  the  topographic  situation  of  the  wells  at  Camp  Grant 31 

18.  Diagram  to  show  relation  of  wells  to  sources  of  contamination 32 

19.  The  log  of  one  of  the  wells  at  Camp  Grant 33 

20.  Map  showing  extent  of  glaciation  in  North  America 40 

21.  Map  showing  the  position  of  the  edge  of  the  Wisconsin  ice-sheet  in  the 

vicinity  of  Camp  Grant 41 

22.  Diagram  showing  how  topography  may  be  changed  by  the  deposition  of 

drift 42 

23.  Sketch  of  the  course  of  pre-glacial  Rock  River 45 

24.  The  railroads  of  Rockford  and  its  surroundings 67 

25.  Diagram  showing  the  relation  between  the  representation  of  topography 

by  contours  and  by  hachures 74. 


(6) 


THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF  CAMP  GRANT 


FOREWORD 


This  little  volume  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  region  about  Camp 
Grant,  which  may  be  of  interest  and  value  to  those  who  are  in  training 
there.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  at  least  one  engagement  of  the  Black 
Hawk  War  in  1832  (pp.  53-4),  was  within  walking  distance  of  the  Camp 
where  men  are  now  being  trained  for  a  war  of  a  very  different  character. 
The  following  pages  contain  brief  accounts  of  the  geography  and  geology 
of  the  region,  suggest  various  sorts  of  problems  connected  with  physical 
environment  which  armies  must  face  wherever  they  find  themselves,  and 
give  some  account  of  the  way  in  which  man  has  adapted  himself  to  the 
region,  and  the  region  to  his  own  uses. 

In  Chapter  II,  on  Points  of  Military  Significance,  the  authors  have 
suggested  those  things  illustrated  here  which  seem  to  them  of  importance 
from  the  soldier's  point  of  view.  The  manner  in  which  these  topics  are 
to  be  dealt  with  in  training,  if  time  permits  their  consideration,  is  of 
course  left  to  the  officers  in  charge. 

In  the  section  on  the  Geological  History  of  the  region,  the  attempt 
has  been  made  to  present  the  subject  matter  in  such  a  way  that  general 
principles  may  be  grasped,  and  perhaps  applied  in  other  regions  where 
the  geology  is  very  unlike  that  of  this  place.  In  all  regions,  however  dif- 
ferent the  details  of  formations,  there  are  some  things  in  common,  and 
general  principles  are  applicable  everywhere. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  section  on  Nature  and  Man  in  the  Rockford 
Region  may  be  of  interest  both  to  those  who  are  there  temporarily,  and 
to  those  who  are  permanent  residents.  There  is  a  corresponding  human 
side  to  every  region,  which  cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest  to  all  thoughtful 
men  who  care  to  understand  their  environment. 

Four  maps  accompany  the  volume.  They  are  referred  to  repeatedly 
in  the  following  pages,  and  are  to  be  found  in  the  pocket  at  the  end  of  the 
volume.  Each  bears  a  name  printed  on  its  margin  (Rockford,  Belvidere, 
Kings,  Kirkland),  and  is  designated  by  name  when  referred  to  in  the  text. 
These  maps  should  be  spread  out  before  the  reader  constantly,  and  every 
reference  in  the  text  to  specified  localities  should  be  followed  on  the  maps. 
Without  their  continuous  use,  Chapter  I  will  have  little  meaning.  The 
relations  of  the  four  maps  to  one  another  are  shown  in  figure  1. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  not  familiar  with  maps  of  this  sort  (contour 
maps),  an  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  their  various  features  is  given 

(7) 


8 


THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 


on  pages  73-5.  This  explanation  should  be  read  studiously  by  those  who 
follow  the  text,  unless  they  already  are  familiar  with  maps  of  this  type. 
The  explanation  has  been  put  in  an  appendix  rather  than  in  the  body  of 
the  text,  partly  to  avoid  interruption  of  the  narrative,  and  partly  because 
many  of  those  for  whom  the  volume  is  written,  are  familiar  with  maps 
of  this  sort.  Understanding  of  these  maps,  on  the  part  of  those  not  already 
acquainted  with  them,  will  be  furthered  by  comparison  of  the  maps  with 
the  block  drawings,  plates  I  and  II,  which  represent  the  physical  fea- 


<** 

Fig.  1.     Diagram  showing  the  relative  positions  of  the  four  maps 
accompanying  this  volume. 

tures  of  selected  areas  in  another  way.  Plate  I  (p.  12)  represents  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  area  shown  on  the  Kings  map,  and  Plate  II  (p.  14) 
that  part  of  the  area  of  the  Rockford  map,  which  includes  the  remarkable 
Pecatonica  flats.  Plate  I  was  drawn  by  Miss  Barrett  of  the  State  Survey ; 
and  the  shading  on  Plate  II  was  kindly  contributed  by  J.  H.  Renshawe 
through  the  courtesy  of  the  Director  and  the  Chief  Geographer  of  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey. 

Attention  may  be  called  to  the  larger-scale  map  of  a  small  area  about 
the  Camp  prepared  by  the  War  Department.  The  scale  of  this  map 
makes  it  possible  to  represent  many  details  which  are  not  shown  on  the 
maps  accompanying  this  volume.  These  maps  are  perhaps  more  legible 
at  a  glance  because  of  the  use  of  colors;  and  because  they  cover  a  larger 
area  will  be  more  useful  than  the  larger  scale  map  in  long  marches.  The 
larger  area  which  they  cover  offers  a  greater  range  of  problems  involving 
reconnaisance,  visibility,  movement  of  artillery,  horses  and  men,  than  the 
larger-scale  map  of  the  smaller  area. 


CHAPTER  I— PHYSICAL  FEATURES 
Location  and  Topography 

Camp  Grant  is  in  the  midst  of  the  great  fertile  tract  which  has  been 
•called  The  Central  Lowland  Plains  of  the  United  States.1  These  plains 
include  the  larger  part  of  Illinois  and  adjacent  states,  and  are  character- 
ized by  an  undulating  surface  which  is  not  very  rough,  and  which  nowhere 
reaches  mountainous  heights. 

The  Camp  is  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  Rock  River,  a  valley  prized 
highly  by  the  Indians  (p.  53)  and  attractive  to  white  men  as  well,  in  the 
early  days  of  settlement.  The  site  of  the  Camp  is  little  more  than  720  feet 
above  the  sea.  Its  approximate  flatness  is  shown  by  the  wide  spacing  of  the 
contours  (the  brown  lines  on  the  map,  see  p.  73)  where  the  Camp  stands.  In 
contrast,  the  steep  slope  by  which  the  nearly  flat  land  falls  off  to  the  river, 
is  represented  by  two  contours  close  together.  On  the  larger  scale  map  of 
the  Army  Engineers  (p.  8)  a  small  contour  interval  is  used,  and  several 
closely  crowded  contours  represent  this  steep  slope.  In  the  other  large 
valleys  of  the  region,  such  as  those  of  the  Pecatonica  (Rockford  map), 
and  the  Kishwaukee  and  its  South  Branch  (Belvidere  and  Kirkland  maps), 
there  are  considerable  tracts  of  about  the  same  elevation  as  that  about 
Camp.  These  are  the  lowlands  of  the  region.  The  lowest  point  in  the  area 
covered  by  the  four  maps  accompanying  this  report  is  the  surface  of 
Rock  River  at  Byron,  at  the  west  edge  of  the  area  of  the  Kings  map, 
where  the  river  is  less  than  680  feet  above  the  sea. 

Outside  the  valleys,  most  of  the  surface  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Camp 
has  an  altitude  ranging  from  760  to  900  feet  above  the  sea,  but  there  are 
small  areas  which  rise  to  greater  heights,  as  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  area  covered  by  the  Belvidere  map,  where  several  small  areas,  all  of 
them  less  than  4  miles  from  the  state  line,  have  an  altitude  of  more  than 
1000  feet.  The  total  relief  of  the  area  shown  on  the  maps  therefore  is  a 
little  more  than  320  feet. 

Most  of  the  upland  part  of  the  area  covered  by  the  maps  is  well 
drained.  On  its  surface  there  are  neither  ponds  nor  lakes,  and  most  of 
it  is  free  even  from  marshes.  The  northeastern  part  of  the  Belvidere  map 
shows  a  number  of  upland  marshes,  and  a  few  very  small  ones  are  shown 
on  the  Kings  and  Kirkland  maps.  Nor  are  there  large  areas  of  the  up- 
land where  the  surface  is  flat.  There  is  a  considerable  tract  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  Kirkland  area  (Kirkland  map),  and  the  adjacent  part 


lFenneman,  N.   M.,   Annals  of  the  Association  of  American  Geographers,  Vol.  VI,   1916. 

(9) 


10  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF    CAMP   GRANT 

of  the  Kings  area  (Kings  map),  where  the  slope  of  the  surface  is  so* 
slight  that  water  from  rain  and  melting  snow  does  not  run  off  readily. 
This  approach  to  flatness  is  indicated  on  the  maps  by  the  wide  spaces  be- 
tween the  contour  lines.  In  this  nearly  flat  tract  the  natural  drainage 
is  so  poor  that  there  has  been  some  ditching  and  tiling,  to  assist  the  run- 
off of  surface  waters. 

Just  as  there  are  relatively  few  areas  of  upland  which  have  poor 
drainage,  so  there  are  relatively  few  places  where  slopes  are  steep.  Most 
of  them  are  so  gentle  that  they  are  tilled  without  difficulty.  The  only 
notable  exceptions  are  (1)  the  slopes  to  Rock  River  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Kishwaukee  (Kings  map)  two  miles  and  more  southwest  of  Camp,  and 
(2)  the  slopes  of  the  Kishwaukee  Valley  at  the  rifle  range  and  east  to  the 
edge  of  the  Kings  area.  The  slopes  of  some  of  the  small  valleys  tributary 
to  the  Rock  and  the  Kishwaukee  are  less  conspicuous  examples  of  the 
same  thing. 

On  the  maps,  steep  slopes  are  represented  by  crowded  contours.  Where 
two  contours  are  close  together,  the  steep  slope  is  at  least  20  feet  high,  the 
vertical  distance  between  contours  on  the  maps  being  20  feet.  Where  a 
number  of  contours  are  close  together,  the  slope  is  higher, — 20  feet  for 


Fig.  2.  Cross-section  of  the  Kishwaukee  Valley  about  2%  miles  above  the 
New  Milford  Bridge.  The  numbers  at  the  ends  represent  elevations  above  the  sea. 
Length  of  section  a  little  more  than  3  miles.  Vertical  scale  exaggerated  about 
Sy2  times. 

each  pair  of  lines.  It  will  be  seen  (Kings  map)  that  there  are  steep 
slopes  more  than  100  feet  high  along  the  Kishwaukee  near  the  rifle  range. 
Three  miles  or  so  above  the  bridge  at  New  Milford  the  slopes  are  more 
than  140  feet  high  on  each  side  of  the  river  (Kings  map,  and  fig.  2).  There 
are  equally  steep  slopes,  but  only  half  as  high,  along  Rock  River  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Kishwaukee. 

Here  and  there  the  streams  have  undercut  their  banks  on  one  side  or 
the  other,  developing  very  steep  cliffs,  as  west  of  the  north  part  of  Camp  ; 
but  the  cliffs  of  this  type  are  not  very  high,  and  are  not  continuous 
for  great  distances.  From  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  the  land  of  the 
area  covered  by  the  map  lies  so  well  that  something  like  85  per  cent  of  it  is 
improved. 

The  absence  of  steep  slopes  in  most  of  the  region  is  shown  in  another 
way.     In  most  places,  country  roads  have  been  laid  out  in  straight  lines 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  11 

without  reference  to  unevenness  of  surface.  Wagon  roads  are  indicated  on 
the  maps  by  two  parallel  black  lines  close  together,  and  an  inspection  of 
the  map  shows  that  most  of  them  are  straight,  and  have  north-south  or 
east-west  courses.  The  few  diagonal  roads  represent  shorter  routes  be- 
tween objective  points  of  travel,  and  were  established  in  early  times,  when 
travel  was  determined  less  than  now  by  boundaries  of  farms  which  follow 
section  or  half -section  lines. 

There  are,  however,  a  few  places  where  roads  depart  from  straightness 
because  the  surface  is  rough.  There  are  two  such  roads  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  Kings  area,  two  or  three  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Bel- 
videre  area,  and  one  about  five  miles  northwest  of  Belvidere. 

On  the  other  hand,  roads  are  absent  from  some  regions  because  of 
the  steepness  of  slopes.  There  are  no  roads  across  the  Kishwaukee  for 
some  miles  above  New  Milford,  and  there  was  no  road  across  Rock  River 
between  Rockford  and  Byron  until  the  autumn  of  1917,  when  one  was 
built  near  the  Camp,  for  its  accommodation.  The  lack  of  roads  across 
these  valleys  may  as  well  be  said  to  be  due  to  lack  of  bridges  as  to  steep- 
ness of  slopes;  but  the  steepness  of  slopes  is  partly  responsible  for  the 
absence  of  bridges.  Rock  River  is  bridged  at  several  points  above  Rock- 
ford  within  the  area  of  the  Rockford  map.  The  slopes  of  the  valley  here 
are  not  so  steep  as  to  the  south,  and  the  gentler  slopes,  the  wider  valley, 
the  ease  of  making  roads,  and  the  favorable  sites  for  settlement,  have  led 
to  greater  development  within  the  valley.  The  construction  of  bridges 
has  followed.  The  absence  of  such  development  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Kishwaukee  where  the  valley  is  narrow,  has  made  the  demand  for  roads 
and  bridges  across  the  river  much  less  than  farther  north. 

The  absence  of  extensive  steep  slopes  is  suggested  further  by  the 
absence  of  considerable  forests,  which  are  shown  in  green  on  the  maps. 
There  are,  it  is  true,  "woodlots"  on  many  farms,  but  most  of  them  are 
small.  They  have  been  preserved,  not  because  the  land  is  unavailable  for 
agriculture,  but  because  it  is  the  fashion  in  this  region  for  the  farms  to  have 
a  patch  of  timber.  The  larger  areas  of  timber  are  where  slopes  are  too 
steep  for  convenient  tillage,  or  where  the  soil  is  poor.  To  the  former  class 
belong  the  fringes  of  timber  along  some  of  the  streams,  notably  the  Rock 
below  the  Kishwaukee,  the  Kishwaukee  where  its  slopes  are  steep,  and 
rather  large  patches  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  area  covered  by  the 
Belvidere  map,  where  the  surface  is  made  uneven  by  the  many  small  and 
rather  deep  valleys  which  lead  westward  to  Rock  River.  There  are  other 
considerable  patches  of  timber  in  (1)  the  extreme  southwestern  part  of 
the  area  covered  by  the  Kings  map,  where  the  surface  is,  for  this  region, 
rough,  and  where  the  soil  in  spots  is  very  sandy,  though  the  slopes  are  not 
fSteep,  and  in  (2)  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Rockford  area  where  there 
is  much  dune  sand. 


12  THE   ENVIRONMENT   OE    CAMP   GRANT 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  all  of  the  area  was  timbered,  and  that 
the  absence  of  considerable  forests  is  due  wholly  to  the  clearing  of  the 
land.  Part  of  it  was  treeless  (prairie)  when  the  region  was  settled;  but 
timber  was  found  in  most  valleys,  and  on  some  of  the  uplands  (p.  56). 

Plate  I  is  a  general  sketch  showing  the  relief  of  an  area  about  Camp 
somewhat  as  it  would  appear  if  seen  from  an  elevation.  It  is  meant  to 
represent  the  surface  somewhat  as  it  would  be  seen  from  an  air-plane, 
except  that  the  color  is  wanting. 

The  Larger  Valleys 
rock  river  valley 

Most  depressions  below  the  surface  of  the  undulating  upland  are  in 
the  form  of  valleys,  a  few  of  which  are  large,  and  many  small.  Of  the 
former,  the  valley  of  Rock  River  is  largest.  It  is  2  to  5  miles  wide  north 
of  Rockford,  and  has  a  depth  of  100  to  200  feet  below  the  upland  on  either 
side  (fig.  3).  Below  the  Kishwaukee,  the  valley  is  much  narrower  (fig.  4) 
and  its  slopes  steeper.  With  something  of  an  interruption  at  Rockford, 
there  is  a  wide  terrace  of  gravel  and  sand,  in  most  places  40  to  50  feet 
above  the  river,  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  channel,  from  the  State  line 
on  the  north  most  of  the  way  to  the  Kishwaukee  on  the  south.  Camp 
Grant  is  on  this  terrace  (fig.  5).  While  the  terrace  approaches  planeness, 
as  shown  by  the  wide  separation  of  the  contours,  it  is  not  altogether  flat. 
Its  surface  is  affected  by  low  mounds  in  some  places,  and  small  valleys 
eross  it.  Here  and  there  short,  steep-sided  ravines  lead  down  from  it  to 
the  river,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  Camp,  and  are  good  illustrations  of  the 
beginnings  of  valleys.  Below  Camp,  and  for  a  few  feet  above  the  stream, 
there  is  a  narrow  flood  plain,  covered  with  water  when  the  river  is  high. 
In  places  there  is  a  low  terrace,  intermediate  between  the  high  terrace 
and  the  flood  plain,  but  much  nearer  the  level  of  the  latter  than  of  the 
former.  In  some  places  the  low  terrace  is  so  low  as  to  be  flooded  in  extreme 
high  water,  thus  constituting  an  upper  flood  plain,  or  "  second  bottoms/ ' 
Much  of  this  second  flood  plain  below  Camp  and  along  the  Kishwaukee 
south  of  Camp  was  flooded  in  March,  1918,  when  the  water  was  abnormally 
high. 

PECATONICA   RIVER   VALLEY 

The  second  largest  valley  in  the  region  is  that  of  the  Pecatonica  River 
(Rockford  map),  and  in  some  ways  this  valley  is  more  remarkable  than 
that  of  the  Rock.  It  is  not  deeper,  but  it  has  an  exceptionally  wide  (2  to  3 
miles),  low  flat,  or  flood-plain  (Plate  II).  The  flat  is,  indeed,  so  low  that 
it  is  drained  but  poorly,  and  during  a  large  part  of  the  year,  is  so  wet 
as  to  make  travel  over  it  difficult  or  even  impossible,  except  on  roads  which 
have  been  graded  several  feet  above  its  level.    The  fineness  of  the  surface 


Illinois  State  Geologica 


Plate  I. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


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14  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF    CAMP   GRANT 

material  of  this  plain  causes  it  to  be  very  muddy  when  wet.  This  valley 
(fig.  6),  is  without  well-developed  terraces  like  those  of  the  valley  of  the 
Rock.  The  map  shows  that  dwellings  are  wanting  on  large  areas  of  the 
Pecatonica  bottoms,  though  present  on  some  parts  which  are  a  few  feet 
above  their  general  level. 

Through  this  extensive  clay-covered  flat,  the  river  winds  back  and 
forth,  much  as  the  Mississippi  winds  through  its  low  flat  toward  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Not  only  are  there  great  bends  (meanders)  in  the  stream,  but 
there  are  numerous  ox-bow  lakes,  which  represent  the  cut-offs  of  former 
meanders.  These  lakes  are  in  all  ways  similar  to  those  along  the  lower 
Mississippi,  or  to  those  of  the  flood  plains  of  other  streams  which  have 
wide  flats  but  little  above  their  own  level.  Such  lakes,  as  well  as  meander- 
ing channels,  are  characteristic  of  sluggish  streams.  In  times  of  flood, 
most  of  this  great  flat  along  the  Pecatonica  becomes  virtually  a  lake, 
though  there  is  always  a  current  to  the  northeast.     This  wide  flood-plain 


Fig.  6.  Cross-section  of  the  Pecatonica  Valley  a  little  less  than  4  miles  west 
of  the  Rock  River  at  Rockton.  The  numbers  at  the  ends  represent  elevations 
above  the  sea.  P.  R.  —  Pecatonica  River.  There  are  other  channels  at  essentially 
the  same  level  at  various  points  in  the  flat.  Length  of  section  nearly  4  miles. 
Vertical  scale  exaggerated  about  Sy2  times. 

is  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  narrow  flood-plain  of  the  larger  river  to 
which  the  Pecatonica  flows.  The  cause  of  the  difference  will  be  explained 
on  later  pages. 

The  lower  end  of  the  valley  of  Sugar  River,  tributary  to  the  Peca- 
tonica from  the  northwest,  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  valley  of  the 
Pecatonica  itself. 

THE   KISHWAUKEE   VALLEYS 

The  third  largest  valley  in  the  region  is  that  of  the  Kishwaukee  River. 
Its  North  and  South  branches  come  together  about  7  miles  above  Camp 
Grant,  and  just  east  of  the  area  covered  by  the  Kings  map.  Down  to 
their  junction,  the  two  branches  of  the  river  flow  in  wide,  shallow  valleys 
(fig.  7)  whose  slopes  are  gentle,  and  tilled  in  most  places;  but  below  their 
junction,  the  valley  is  narrow  (fig.  2)  and  its  slopes  are  steep  down  almost 
to  New  Milford,  a  mile  or  so  above  the  south  part  of  the  Camp.  The  valleys 
of  the  North  and  South  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee  have  terraces  similar 
to  those  of  Rock  River  Valley,  though  lower.  The  narrow  part  of  the 
Kishwaukee  Valley,  below  the  union  of  its  branches,  has  no  distinct  ter- 
races. In  this  respect,  the  narrow  part  of  this  valley  is  like  the  narrow  part 
of  the  valley  of  the  Rock. 


DSON,  DIRECTOR 


15 


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PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


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16  the  environment  of  camp  grant 

Peculiarities  of  the  Larger  Valleys 
As  a  rule,  large  streams  have  large  valleys,  and  small  streams  have 
small  valleys.  Furthermore,  the  valleys  of  most  streams  increase  in  width 
down  stream.  Within  this  region  there  are  a  number  of  rather  striking  ex- 
ceptions to  these  general  rules.  Among  them  may  be  noted  (1)  the  wide 
valley  of  Rock  River  above  the  Kishwaukee  (except  for  a  short  distance  at 
Roekford),  succeeded  by  a  much  narrower  valley  below  (compare  figs.  3 
and  4) ;  (2)  the  wide,  capacious  valleys  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Kish- 
waukee, and  the  narrower  and  smaller  valley  of  the  joint  stream  which 
carries  their  united  waters  for  4  miles  before  it  reaches  the  large  valley 
of  the  Rock  just  above  Camp  (compare  fig.  7  with  fig.  2) ;  and  (3)  the 
valleys  of  some  of  the  creeks,  which  are  so  large  as  to  be  out  of  harmony 
with  the  streams  which  flow  through  them.  Thus  Stillman  Creek,  some 
8  miles  southwest  of  Camp  Grant  (Kings  area),  has  a  wide,  capacious 
valley,  quite  out  of  keeping  with  the  volume  of  water.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  valley  2  or  3  miles  farther  west.  South  of  the  Kishwaukee  River, 
south  of  Camp,  there  is  a  broad,  capacious  valley  through  which  a  very 
small  creek  flows  with  very  slight  fall.  So  poor  was  the  natural  drainage 
here  that  for  some  miles  the  creek  has  been  provided  with  a  channel  by 
ditching.  The  valleys  of  Piscasaw  Creek  (southeastern  part  of  Belvidere 
area),  Coon  Creek  (northeastern  corner  of  Kirkland  area),  and  Killbuck 
Creek  (eastern  part  of  Kings  area,  fig.  8),  all  are  large  for  the  creeks 
which  flow  through  them.  Such  valleys  are  not  normal.  Their  explan- 
ation is  connected  with  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  surface  of 
this  area,  which  will  be  sketched  later. 

Minor  Valleys 
In  contrast  with  the  valleys  just  mentioned,  most  of  the  many  tribu- 
taries to  the  larger  streams  flow  in  valleys  harmonious  in  size  with  the 

800- 

Fig.  9.  Cross-section  of  a  small  tributary  valley  nearly  3  miles  due  west  of 
the  Camp  Grant  Bridge.  Numbers  at  the  ends  represent  elevations  above  the  sea. 
Length  of  section  about  2  miles.     Vertical  scale  exaggerated  about  Sy2  times. 

creeks  themselves.  There  are  many  little  valleys  or  ravines  which  have 
no  streams  except  in  wet  weather.  The  relation  of  most  of  the  small  streams 
and  valleys  is  such  as  to  make  it  clear  that  the  streams  have  made  their 
valleys,  in  relatively  recent  times.  These  valleys  are  being  made  larger 
all  the  time,  and  their  size  is  not  such  as  to  call  for  their  inception  far 
back  in  geological  history.  Most  of  the  valleys  leading  to  the  Rock  River 
are  of  this  sort  (fig.  9). 


physical  features  17 

Streams 

The  water  of  the  larger  streams  is  turbid  all  the  time.  Formerly  the 
Rock  was  a  clear  stream.  Its  Indian  name,  Sinissippi,  is  said  to  signify 
" rocky  river,"  referring  perhaps  to  the  fact  that  its  bottom  was  stony 
when  the  region  first  was  settled.  Whether  this  has  reference  to  the 
gravel  at  the  bottom,  or  to  the  fact  that  the  channel  was  on  limestone  in 
some  places,  is  not  known.  A  " rocky"  bottom  implies  a  clear  stream. 
Early  settlers  in  the  valley  have  left  it  on  record  that  in  the  '40 's  the  water 
of  the  river  was  clear  enough  at  Rockford,  except  in  times  of  flood,  so  that 
fish  could  be  seen  at  the  bottom.  This  condition  of  things  ceased  long  ago. 
The  numerous  factories  along  the  river  pollute  its  waters,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  land  permits  the  surface  water  flowing  to  the  river  to  gather 
more  mud  than  formerly.  The  result  is  that  the  water  is  never  clear.  The 
early  settlers  in  the  region  had  high  hopes  of  the  navigability  of  the  river 
(p.  63),  but  these  hopes  were  doomed  to  disappointment. 

The  Pecatonica  is  a  sluggish,  muddy  stream,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
in  contrast  with  the  Rock,  even  in  early  days.  This  is  because  the  bed 
of  the  stream  is  muddy,  in  contrast  with  the  original  bed  of  the  Rock.  An 
early  writer2  speaks  of  the  "turbid  waters"  of  the  Pecatonica,  mingling 
with  the  "bright  flashing  current  of  the  Rock  River."  The  Indian  name, 
Pecatonica,  means  "muddy  water"  or  "crooked  stream,"  according  to  the 
same  writer. 

The  Kishwaukee  River  is  less  turbid  than  the  larger  streams,  and  dur- 
ing much  of  the  year  its  waters  are  relatively  clear.  So  also  are  the 
waters  of  the  Sugar  River,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  area,  above 
the  Pecatonica  flats.  Like  Sinissippi  and  Pecatonica,  Kishwaukee  is  an 
Indian  name,  said  to  mean  ' '  clear  water. ' ' 

The  waters  of  the  larger  streams  are  so  turbid  that  they  are  not  suit- 
able for  domestic  use.  While  the  waters  of  many  of  the  smaller  streams 
are  less  objectionable  to  the  eye,  their  use  is  to  be  discouraged,  for  most 
of  them  flow  through  areas  which  are  settled  so  closely  as  to  make  pollution 
possible  or  even  probable.  The  stock  of  the  pastures  through  which  most 
of  them  flow  has  free  access  to  them,  and  drainage  from  many  farm-yards 
finds  its  way  into  them.  The  only  surface  waters  of  the  region  which  are 
wholly  palatable  and  safe  are  the  waters  of  springs,  of  which  there  are  few. 
One  of  the  most  notable  is  Blackhawk  Spring,  south-southwest  of  the  vil- 
lage of  Cherry  Valley. 

Ground-Water 
Generally  speaking,  the  cracks  and  pores  in  the  rock,  clay,  gravel, 
and  sand,  are  full  of  water  up  to  a  certain  level.    This  level  up  to  which 


2Shaw,   James,    111.    Geol.    Survey,   Vol.    V,    1873. 


18  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 

the  earth  is  full  of  water,  is  known  as  the  ground-water  surface,  or  the 
water-table.  When  wells  are  sunk  below  the  water-table,  water  seeps  into 
them  from  the  surrounding  material,  whether  gravel,  sand,  clay,  or  rock. 
The  ground-water  which  supplies  wells  is  rain  water  which  has  sunk  into 
the  soil  and  into  the  material  beneath  it. 


Fig.  10.  Diagram  to  show  the  relation  of  the  water-table,  W  W,  to  the  sur- 
face. The  water-table  is  farther  below  the  surface  where  the  land  is  high  than 
where  it  is  low. 

In  general,  the  water-table  is  higher  under  high  lands,  and  lower  under 
low  lands ;  but  wells  must  be  sunk  deeper  in  high  land  than  in  low,  to  get 
water.  This  is  illustrated  by  fig.  10.  The  well  at  A  will  need  to  be  deeper 
than  the  one  at  B,  but  its  bottom  is  at  a  higher  level.  In  the  region  here 
under  consideration,  an  adequate  supply  of  well-water  is  to  be  had  in 
most  parts  of  the  upland,  at  depths  of  40  to  60  feet;  in  the  valleys,  at 
depths  half  as  great.  Many  wells  in  the  uplands  are  much  deeper  than 
40  to  60  feet,  some  of  them  more  than  100  feet.  In  many  cases  this  is  not 
because  water  is  not  to  be  had  at  lesser  depths,  but  because  the  deeper  wells 
yield  purer  water  or  more  water.  On  a  later  page,  some  account  is  given 
of  the  ways  in  which  a  supply  of  pure  water  may  be  secured. 

Climate3 

The  soldier's  interest  in  the  climate  of  the  region  about  Camp  Grant 
centers  chiefly  in  two  items :  (1)  how  it  affects  his  comfort  and  activities, 
and  (2)  how  it  compares  with  the  climate  on  the  Western  Front. 

Camp  Grant  is  about  as  hot  in  summer  and  as  cold  in  winter  as  most 
other  places  in  the  upper  Mississippi  basin.  At  Rockford,  July,  which 
is  a  little  warmer  than  June  and  August,  has  an  average  temperature  of 
73°  F.  (about  23°  C),  with  maximum  temperatures  ranging  up  to  100°  F. 
(nearly  38°  C.)  or  more.  The  highest  on  record  is  about  110°  F.  (about 
43°  C).  Such  extreme  heat,  however,  is  fortunately  rare.  January,  with 
an  average  temperature  of  about  21°  F.  (about  -6°  C.)  is  the  coldest 
month.  The  lowest  recorded  temperature  is  -26°  F.  (about  -32°  C).  Such 
extremely  low  temperatures  are  as  rare  as  the  very  hot  days  of  summer. 
The  changes  in  temperature  from  month  to  month  are  shown  in  figure  11, 
where  the  big  average  difference,  53°  F.  (about  29.4°  C.)  between  summer 
and  winter,  also  appears. 

Rainfall  (including  the  water  of  melted  snow)  is  not  very  heavy  about 


3The  paragraphs  on  climate  were  prepared,  for  the  most  part,  by   Professor  Walter  S.   Tower. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


19 


Camp  Grant,  averaging  approximately  35  inches  or  about  89  cm.  (10 
to  12  inches  of  snow  being  counted  as  1  inch  of  rain)  a  year,  with  90  to  100 
days  each  year  when  rain  or  snow  falls.  Figure  12  shows,  graphically,  the 
distribution  of  rain  through  the  year  at  Winnebago,  10  miles  west  of  Camp. 
The  warmer  months,  April  to  September  inclusive,  have  about  65  per  cent 
of  the  total  rainfall.  Most  of  the  summer  rainfall  comes  in  showers — 
rarely  heavy  downpours — of  short  duration,  though  gentle  rains  of  longer 


7 

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Fig.  11.  Graph  showing  the  temperature  curve  for  Rockford.  The  numbers 
at  the  left  indicate  temperatures  in  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  vertical  lines  rep- 
resent average  temperatures  for  the  several  months.  The  highest  average  monthly- 
temperature  is  that  for  July,  74°  F.  (  =  23.3°  C).  The  lowest  temperature  is  for 
the  month  of  January,  21°  F.  (=  nearly  — 6°  C).  The  average  temperature  for 
any  other  month  can  be  determined  by  reference  to  the  numbers  at  the  left.  The 
mean  annual  range  of  temperature  is  53°  F.  (  —  29.4°  C.)  and  the  mean  temper- 
ature for  the  year,  47°  F.  (  =  8.3°  C). 

duration  may  come  at  any  season.  Sudden  showers  are  likely  to  make 
roads  heavy,  and  parade  grounds  and  trenches  muddy.  In  winter,  snow 
is  more  abundant  than  rain,  the  average  amount  being  about  42  inches 
(about  4  inches  or  10  cm.  of  rain).  Most  of  the  snow  falls  between 
the  beginning  of  December  and  the  end  of  March.  In  few  years  is  there 
enough  to  interfere  seriously  with  camp  routine.  The  winter  of  1917-18 
was  exceptional  in  this  respect. 


20 


THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 


Climatically,  Camp  Grant  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  cantonments  in 
which  to  train  for  the  Western  Front,  because  the  differences  between 
the  two  places  are  all  to  the  advantage  of  the  Camp  Grant  man,  as  com- 
pared with  the  men  from  most  other  cantonments.  The  Camp  Grant  man 
will  find  a  milder  climate  on  the  Western  Front  in  winter,  and  a  cooler 
climate  in  summer. 

Temperature  conditions  on  the  Western  Front  are  illustrated  by  the 
data  for  Lille,  near  the  Belgian  frontier.  Figure  13  shows  the  change 
from  month  to  month,  which  is  notably  less  than  for  Camp  Grant.    July 


0 


=5 


^ 


I 


Fig.  12.  Graph  showing  the  precipitation  (rainfall)  at  Winnebago,  111.,  about 
10  miles  west-northwest  of  Camp.  The  numbers  at  the  left  indicate  inches  of 
water.  The  several  vertical  lines  represent  the  average  rainfall  for  the  several" 
months,  that  at  the  left  being  January  and  that  at  the  right  being  December.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  greatest  monthly  precipitation  is  in  May,  when  the  amount 
is  something  more  than  4  inches  (about  10  cm.),  and  that  the  rainfall  is  much 
heavier  during  the  spring  and  summer  months  than  during  the  rest  of  the  year. 
The  average  for  the  year  is  35  inches  (about  88.8  cm.).  The  average  amount  of 
snow  is  42  inches,  or  about  4  inches  (10  cm.)  of  water. 

is  10°  F.  (5°  to  6°  C.)  cooler  there  than  at  Camp  Grant,  and  January  16° 
F.  (about  9°  C.)  warmer.  Farther  east,  however,  in  the  low  tablelands 
near  the  German  frontier,  the  winter  temperature  is  only  about  10°  F. 
(5°  to  6°  C.)  above  that  of  Camp  Grant.  These  higher  temperatures  in 
winter  help  materially  to  lessen  the  discomforts  of  that  season.  In  every 
respect  the  Camp  Grant  man  has  experienced  in  his  training  much  more 
rigorous  weather  than  he  is  likely  to  find  on  the  French  Front. 

The  scene  of  war  in  northern  France  (spring,  1918)  is  more  than 
500  miles  farther  north  than  Camp  Grant.  Its  latitude  is  a  little  higher 
than  that  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  western  part  of  the  United 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


21 


70' 
60° 
SO' 

30' 

6i 

1.5 

£-^ 

\ 

20' 

to' 

n' 

I 


^ 


I 


Fig.  13. — Graph  showing  monthly  temperatures  at  Lille,  France.  The  num- 
bers at  the  left  show  temperatures  in  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  12  vertical  lines 
represent  average  monthly  temperatures,  commencing  with  January  at  the  left. 
The  highest  monthly  average  temperature  is  that  of  July,  63.5°  F.  (  =  17.5°  C). 
The  mean  annual  range  is  27.5°  F.  (  —  15.3°  C).  The  mean  temperature  for  the 
year  is  49.46°  F.  (=9.7°  C).  The  mean  maximum  is  90°  F.  (  =  32.2°  C.)  and 
the  mean  minimum,  8°  F.   (=: — 13.3°  C). 


2 


i 


% 


s 


Fig.  14. — Graph  showing  the  rainfall  by  months  at  Douai,  France.  The  figures 
at  the  left  indicate  inches  of  precipitation.  The  several  vertical  lines  represent 
the  precipitation  by  months,  commencing  with  January  at  the  left.  The  average 
annual  precipitation  is  27.2  inches   (nearly  70  cm.). 


22  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

States.  The  temperature  of  the  coastal  portion  of  northern  France  is  not 
unlike  that  of  Seattle.  The  absence  of  such  extremes  of  temperature  as 
are  experienced  at  Camp  Grant  is  due,  as  in  the  case  of  Seattle,  to  prox- 
imity to  the  sea.  The  sea  is  warmer  than  the  land  in  winter,  and  cooler 
in  summer.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west,  and  the  air  which 
drifts  over  the  land  in  winter  tempers  the  cold,  and  that  carried  over  in 
summer  reduces  the  heat,  making  extremes  much  less  than  they  otherwise 
would  be.  Farther  east,  the  influence  of  the  sea  is  less,  and  extremes  of 
temperature  are  greater,  for  the  same  reason  that  they  are  greater  in  cen- 
tral Washington  than  at  Seattle. 

Eainfall  conditions  in  northern  France  vary  greatly,  most  places 
having  as  much  rain  as  Camp  Grant,  and  some  parts  much  more  (^g.  14). 
Toward  the  west,  there  is  rather  more  in  winter  than  in  summer,  but  to- 
ward the  east  the  reverse  is  the  case.  On  the  average  there  are  about  140 
days  a  year  when  rain  falls  in  northern  France,  40  more  than  in  northern 
Illinois.  More  of  the  rain  in  France  comes  in  ''drizzles"  or  ''heavy  mists." 
Sudden  downpours,  like  the  summer  showers  of  Camp  Grant,  are  infre- 
quent. From  the  standpoint  of  trench  life  and  military  operations,  short, 
heavier  showers  probably  are  preferable  to  protracted  rains.  In  winter 
many  of  the  protracted  rains  are  accompanied  by  chilling  winds. 


CHAPTER  II— POINTS  OF  MILITARY  SIGNIFICANCE 

If  the  area  is  looked  upon  from  the  point  of  view  of  military  oper- 
ations, there  are  some  significant  features,  though  none  of  a  commanding 
character. 

Barriers 

There  are  few  natural  obstacles  to  movement  of  troops  or  artillery 
in  any  direction.  There  are  no  mountain  ranges  to  oppose  movement  or 
to  offer  protection,  and  there  are  no  commanding  ridges  or  hills.  The 
most  significant  barriers  are  (a)  the  larger  streams,  and  (b)  certain  low 
tracts,  notably  the  flood  plain  of  the  Pecatonica,  which  are  subject  to 
floods,  and  which  are  wet  and  muddy  for  weeks  or  even  months  at  a  time. 
Such  tracts  would  not  be  obstacles  when  the  ground  is  frozen  or  in  dry 
times  in  warm  weather.  Of  lesser  significance  as  barriers  are  (c)  a  few 
steep  slopes  which  would  make  rapid  movement  of  troops  difficult;  but 
there  are  none  of  considerable  extent,  which  are  prohibitive. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  barriers  are  as  real  to  one  of  two  contending 
armies  as  to  the  other,  and  that  the  obstacle  which  blocks  the  progress  of 
one  army  may  serve  a  defensive  purpose  against  its  adversary. 

The  Rock,  the  Pecatonica,  the  Kishwaukee,  and  the  Sugar  rivers  all 
are  large  enough  to  interfere  with  the  crossing  of  men  or  wheels,  except 
where  they  are  bridged.  Between  Byron  and  Rockford,  some  15  to  20 
miles  as  the  river  flows,  there  was  no  bridge,  prior  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Camp.  There  are  five  bridges  in  Rockford,  and  three  between  that 
city  and  the  northern  edge  of  the  area  covered  by  the  Rockford  map.  The 
Pecatonica  River  has  but  one  bridge  within  the  area  of  the  Rockford  map, 
though  there  is  another  but  a  short  distance  west  of  the  western 
border  of  the  area  of  the  map.  Elsewhere  the  wide  separation  of  the 
bridges  leaves  long  stretches  without  practicable  crossings.  Furthermore, 
bridges  are  destroyed  easily,  so  that  problems  of  stream  crossings  are 
serious,  as  the  Austrians  found  in  their  early  attempts  (1914)  to  cross 
the  Save  and  the  Danube,  into  Serbia.  The  Rock,  though  a  small  stream 
as  compared  with  some  of  those  which  have  played  an  important  part  in 
the  European  conflict,  is  too  large  in  most  places  to  be  forded  at  any  time. 
The  other  rivers,  and  many  of  the  creeks,  are  too  large  to  be  forded  when 
in  flood.  The  periods  when  the  creeks  cannot  be  forded  are  short,  rang- 
ing from  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days.  The  periods  of  high  water  in  the 
rivers  are  longer.  The  channel  of  the  Pecatonica  is  muddy,  and  the  muddy 
bottom  would  make  fording  difficult  or  impossible,  even  when  the  water 

is  not  too  deep. 

(23) 


24  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 

The  valleys  of  some  of  the  larger  rivers  of  western  France,  as  the 
Somme,  have  low  flood  plains  which  offer  problems  similar  to  those  of  the 
Pecatonica. 

Some  of  the  smaller  valleys  offer  problems  akin  to  those  of  the  Peca- 
tonica. A  number  of  them,  like  those  south  and  southwest  of  the  village 
of  Stillman  Valley,  the  valley  of  Killbuck  Creek  and  the  valleys  of  some 
of  its  tributaries  (Kings  map),  and  the  valleys  of  Piscasaw  and  Beaver 
creeks  (Belvidere  area),  are  wide  and  basin-like,  and  their  bottoms  may  be 
boggy.  The  high  water  in  times  of  flood,  and  the  muddiness  which  per- 
sists after  floods,  would  be  serious  obstacles  to  troops  and  heavy  guns,  as 
serious  for  hostile  as  for  friendly  armies.  The  maps  hint  at  this  condition 
of  things  along  some  of  these  valleys,  by  the  wide  separation  of  roads 
across  them.  Thus  there  is,  in  one  place,  a  stretch  of  3  miles  where  no 
road  crosses  the  Piscasaw. 

The  Kishwaukee  and  Rock  rivers  afford  opportunity  for  the  study  of 
problems  in  crossing  streams  where  bridges  are  wanting,  but  where  the 
bottom  is  firm.  The  Rock  has  islands  near  Camp  and  below,  and  the 
problems  which  such  islands  offer,  in  the  crossing  of  streams,  might  be 
studied  here.  Islands  were  of  great  service  to  the  Austrians  when  they 
finally  effected  a  crossing  of  the  Danube  into  Serbia,  late  in  1915. 

The  valley  of  the  Pecatonica  offers  excellent  opportunity  for  the  study 
of  the  many  problems  which  armies  might  encounter  in  the  field,  in  cross- 
ing wet,  marshy,  and  flooded  tracts,  and  in  crossing  streams  with  soft, 
muddy  bottoms.  The  conditions  along  the  Pecatonica  have  some  resem- 
blance to  those  along  the  Save  River  on  the  north  border  of  Serbia.  The 
marshy  lands  along  this  river  played  a  significant  part  in  the  early  at- 
tempts of  the  Austrians  to  invade  Serbia. 

The  problem  of  flooding  such  an  area  as  the  Pecatonica  bottoms,  might 
be  worthy  of  attention. 

Ridges  and  Slopes 

There  are  minor  ridges  and  hills  at  one  point  and  another  of  which 
military  use  could  be  made  under  some  circumstances,  and  many  slopes 
of  which  experts  in  warfare  would  know  how  to  take  advantage.  A  ridge 
of  the  type  referred  to  lies  about  4  miles  south-southwest  of  the  bridge 
across  the  Kishwaukee  just  above  its  junction  with  the  Rock.  Under  some 
circumstances,  such  a  ridge  might  be  of  great  service  in  warfare,  and  the 
ways  of  utilizing  it  might  be  studied  here.  There  is  a  group  of  hills 
of  possibly  similar  significance,  3  or  4  miles  southeast  of  Camp,  east  of 
the  junction  of  Killbuck  Creek  with  the  Kishwaukee  River. 

The  utilization  of  steep  slopes  can  be  studied  to  good  advantage  along 
the  Kishwaukee  above  Camp,  and  along  the  Rock  below  the  Kishwaukee. 
In  both  these  situations,  solid  rock  (limestone)  comes  close  to  the  surface. 


POINTS    OF    MILITARY    SIGNIFICANCE  25 

Gentler  slopes,  of  clayey  or  gravelly  material,  are  available  for  the  study 
of  such  problems  as  they  afford,  all  along  the  east  edge  of  the  terrace  on 
which  Camp  Grant  is  located. 

Slopes  of  various  angles  within  easy  reach  of  Camp,  afford  good  op- 
portunity for  the  study  of  the  positions  on  slopes  which  offer  protection 
against  fire  from  various  positions  on  the  uplands  above,  and  also  for  the 
study  of  problems  involved  in  the  movement  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and  ar- 
tillery. 

Roads  and  Road  Metal 

There  are  numerous  roads,  and  more  could  be  built  almost  anywhere, 
in  almost  any  direction,  if  needed.  The  steep  slopes  of  the  Kishwaukee 
Valley  for  a  few  miles  above  Camp,  and  of  the  valley  of  the  Rock  most  of 
the  way  below  the  Kishwaukee,  are  unfavorable  for  their  construction,  but 
there  is  hardly  a  slope  in  the  whole  area  along  which  a  road  could  not  be 
made,  if  it  were  important. 

Many  of  the  roads  of  the  region  have  been  graveled,  or  treated  with 
crushed  stone.  In  some  cases  this  has  been  done  so  well  and  so  recently, 
that  the  roads  are  in  good  condition.  In  other  cases,  the  roads,  once  good, 
have  not  been  properly  cared  for  and  are  now  in  bad  condition.  The 
main  valley-road  north  from  Rockford  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  is  an 
example.  Generally  speaking,  the  better  roads,  that  is  those  which  are  in 
good  condition  at  all  times,  radiate  from  the  cities  of  Rockford  and  Bel- 
videre.  In  one  place,  5  miles  or  so  north-northeast  of  Belvidere,  there  is  a 
stretch  of  cement  road.  Many  of  the  roads  of  the  region  are  "dirt" 
roads.  While  they  are  good  for  light  traffic  in  dry  weather,  they  are  not 
satisfactory  for  traffic  of  any  sort  in  wet  weather,  or  for  heavy  traffic  at 
any  time. 

If  this  region  were  the  scene  of  such  conflict  as  northern  France,  one 
of  the  great  and  immediate  problems  would  be  the  construction  of  roads, — 
roads  which  would  be  serviceable  in  all  sorts  of  weather,  for  all  sorts  of 
traffic.  Fortunately  material  for  the  betterment  of  the  roads  is  at  hand. 
Limestone  underlies  most  of  the  region,  and  limestone,  crushed  and 
properly  applied,  makes  excellent  road  metal.  There  are  quarries  in  many 
places  (PL  I),  and  limestone  comes  to  the  surface  and  might  be  quarried  in 
many  others.  Most  of  the  large  quarries  are  west  of  the  river,  in  or  near 
Rockford,  but  there  is  a  considerable  quarry  a  mile  or  so  west-southwest 
of  Belvidere,  and  small  quarries  are  distributed  widely.  Limestone  is  to 
be  seen  at  numerous  points  along  the  bluffs  on  both  sides  of  the  Kish- 
waukee River  where  the  bluffs  are  steep  (Rockford  map),  and  on  both  sides 
of  Rock  River  Valley  below  the  Kishwaukee.  In  these  situations  most  of 
the  tributary  valleys  and  ravines  which  descend  from  the  upland  to  the 
main  streams,  reveal  the  rock.  It  is  seen  also  in  some  of  the  small  valleys 
both  east  and  west  of  Rock  River  north  of  Rockford,  along  roadways  at 


26  THE  ENVIKONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 

many  points,  especially  west  of  Rock  River,  and  at  numerous  points 
in  the  uneven  tract  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Kings  area.  Quarries 
are  possible  in  all  these  places.  In  all  of  them  the  overburden  is  thin,  and 
the  thickness  of  weathered  rock  above  the  unweathered  is  slight.  Sites  for 
quarries  should  be  selected  with  reference  to  accessibility,  and  proximity 
to  the  places  where  the  stone  is  to  be  used. 

Road  materials  in  this  region  are  not  confined  to  limestone,  though 
crushed  rock  is  the  best  local  material  available.  There  is  gravel  in  great 
quantities  at  various  points  throughout  the  area  covered  by  the  four  maps. 
The  deep  filling  of  Rock  River  Valley  is  the  largest  single  source,  and  a  very 
extensive  pit  has  been  opened  in  the:  terrace  along  the  railway  about  3 
miles  northeast  of  Rockton.  Much  of  the  filling  of  this  valley  is,  however, 
too  sandy  to  be  of  excellent  quality  for  road-making.  The  excess  of  sand 
could  be  removed  by  screening,  though  this  takes  time  and  involves  some 
expense.  The  filling  is,  on  the  whole,  more  sandy  to  the  south  than  to 
the  north.  The  quality  of  the  material  near  Camp  can  be  seen  in  the  ter- 
race bluff  facing  the  river. 

Gravel  of  better  quality  for  road  purposes  is  found  in  some  of  the 
gravel  hills  in  various  parts  of  the  region.  There  is  a  group  of  such  hills 
(called  homes)  3  to  5  miles  southeast  of  Camp,  the  west  end  of  the*  group 
being  north  of  Killbuck  Creek,  just  above  its  junction  with  the  Kiskwaukee. 

A  ridge  (or  line  of  hills)  of  similar  composition  extends  southwestward 
from  a  point  about  5  miles  southwest  of  Camp  (about  3  miles  northeast  of 
the  village  of  Stillman  Valley).  There  is  still  another  group  of  gravel  hills 
(kames)  4  miles  southeast  of  Belvidere,  east  of  the  railway.  There  is  much 
gravel  also  south  of  the  junction  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee, 
quantities  of  it  in  the  valley  of  the  North  Branch  of  the  Kishwaukee,  and 
along  the  east  bluff  of  Rock  River  Valley  above  the  terrace,  north  of  Camp. 
There  are  many  smaller,  but  considerable  sources  of  supply,  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  area.  In  some  of  these  places,  screening  would  im- 
prove the  quality  of  the  material  for  road  purposes.  In  these  various  places 
there  are  scores  of  gravel  pits,  some  large  and  some  small,  and  many  more 
could  be  opened  in  case  of  need. 

The  condition  of  various  roads  within  easy  walking  distance  of  Camp 
is  such  as  to  suggest  problems  of  various  sorts  to  those  interested  in  their 
improvement.  Questions  of  (a)  road  bed,  (b)  drainage,  and  (c)  grade, 
all  may  be  studied  to  advantage,  and  the  principles  illustrated  here  are 
applicable  elsewhere. 

A  geologist  might  be  of  material  service  with  every  considerable  army 
unit,  by  helping  to  locate  quickly  suitable  sites  for  road  beds,  road  metal, 
and  materials  suitable  for  other  sorts  of  construction.  The  Germans  have 
successfully  used  experts  for  such  purposes  who  furnish  advice  in  advance 
even  as  to  what  tools  shall  be  brought  for  working  the  material  available. 


points  of  military  significance  27 

Problems  of  Trenching  and  Tunneling 
Over  the  limestone  in  most  places  lies  a  very  considerable  thickness 
of  gravel,  sand,  and  clay,  or  a  mixture  of  these  materials.  Collectively 
they  are  known  as  drift.  They  constitute  the  mantle  rock  of  the  region, 
mantle  rock  being  surface  material  which  is  not  hardened,  and  not  popu- 
larly known  as  rock.  Trenches  could  be  made  in  some  of  the  mantle 
rock  easily  and  in  some  of  it  only  with  more  or  less  difficulty.  Trenches 
in  some  sorts  of  material  would  drain  readily,  while  in  some  drainage 
would  need  to  be  provided  with  much  care.  Trench  walls  would  stand 
much  better  in  some  sorts  of  material  than  in  others.  Problems  involving 
these  elements  can  be  studied  to  good  advantage  close  to  Camp. 

The  sandy  and  gravelly  parts  of  the  drift  can  be  dug  into  easily,  as 
in  the  nearly  level  area  at  Camp.  The  tougher,  clayey  drift,  of  the  sort 
seen  in  the  railway  cut  just  south  of  Camp,  and  on  the  higher  part  of 
the  land  in  the  trench  area,  is  much  harder  to  excavate,  but  can  be  dug 
into  with  pick  and  shovel.  Trenching  in  areas  underlain  by  these  two 
phases  of  drift  is  less  unlike  than  might  be  anticipated,  because  both  are 
covered  in  many  places  by  loam  2  to  5  feet  deep,  which  is  less:  diverse  in 


CI. 
Gr. 


p^t 

W* 

T 

_' 

f' 

jC      » 

••"'* :* 

".%« 

Fig.  15. — Diagram  to  show  how,  in  some  situations,  it  may  be  possible  to 
drain  a  trench  downward.  T  =  trench.  The  sub-stratum  (Gr.)  is  porous  sand  and 
gravel,  which  comes  to  the  surface  in  the  valley  to  the  left.  If  a  hole  be  made 
from  the  bottom  of  the  trench  in  the  clayey  matter  at  the  top  (CI.),  down  into  the 
gravel  below,  water  from  the  trench  would  escape. 

character  than  the  material  below.  The  difficulty  of  digging  in  the  clayey 
drift  is  illustrated  in  the  deeper  excavations  on  the  higher  land  in  the 
trench  area  east  of  Camp.  The  trenches  lower  on  the  slope,  and  those  on 
the  flat  west  of  Camp,  illustrate  the  effect  of  sandiness  on  the  ease  of 
trenching. 

Trenches  in  gravelly  drift  would  drain  somewhat  readily,  because 
the  gravel  is  porous  enough  to  let  the  water  sink  through  it  when  the 
ground  is  not  frozen;  but  trenches  in  the  clayey  drift  would  not  allow 
the  water  to  sink  so  readily,  and  in  such  material,  the  problems  of  drain- 
age demand  special  attention.  Either  (1)  the  bottoms  of  the  trenches 
should  have  slope  enough  to  let  the  water  run  out,  or  (2)  ditches  should 
be  dug  so  as  to  divert  surface  drainage  from  them,  or  (3)  under-drainage 
should  be  provided,  by  boring  down  to  a  porous  under-stratum.  The  last 
device  is  practicable  in  some  places  where  there  is  a  porous  bed  of  mate- 


28  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 

rial,  as  of  gravel,  beneath  a  clayey  cover,  especially  if  the  porous  stratum 
comes  to  the  surface  on  some  near-by  slope  (fig.  15).  This  latter  plan 
would  be  practicable  at  some  points  east  of  Rock  River  terrace,  where  the 
clayey  upper  part  of  the  drift  is  underlain  by  gravel.  Special  study  of 
any  particular  locality  probably  would  show  whether  this  method  of 
drainage  is  practicable. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  area  covered  by  the  Rockford  map,  north 
of  the  Pecatonica  and  east  of  the  Sugar  River,  there  is  much  dune  sand. 
Dunes  constitute  distinct  hillocks  over  parts  of  several  square  miles  some 
3  miles  north-northwest  of  Shirland.  Most  of  them  are  covered  with  a 
poor  growth  of  timber.  If  dune  sand  offers  problems  of  interest  to  offi- 
cers, they  may  be  studied  in  the  region  mentioned.  Dune  sand  is  excavated 
easily,  and  ridges  of  it  could  easily  be  built  up  along  the  trenches  for 
their  protection.  Dune  sand  affords  good  drainage,  and  does  not  become 
muddy  in  wet  weather.  In  dry  times,  the  roads  in  sandy  regions  are  bad, 
unless  a  good  road  bed  has  been  made  by  the  use  of  gravel  or  crushed 
stone.  In  the  areas  of  dune  sand,  most  of  the  roads  are  poor.  They  are 
"dirt"  roads,  but  the  dirt  is  heavy  in  dry  weather  instead  of  wet,  as  in 
areas  of  clay.  Dune  sand  comparable  to  that  of  this  area  is  found  along 
the  coast  of  northern  France. 

The  upper  part  of  the  limestone,  where  it  comes  close  to  the  surface, 
is  much  weathered,  that  is,  it  has  been  broken  into  small  pieces  by  freezing 
and  thawing  and  by  the  roots  of  trees,  and  has  been  softened  and  disin- 
tegrated by  the  dissolving  action  of  rain  water  which  has  sunk  through 
it.  In  most  places,  therefore,  it  would  be  possible  to  make  excavations 
in  the  limestone  to  the  depth  of  trenches,  without  great  difficulty.  If  the 
underlying  rock  were  of  some  harder  variety,  such  as  granite,  it  would 
not  be  practicable  to  make  trenches  in  it.  In  this  event  the  thickness  of 
the  mantle  rock  would  determine  the  positions  in  which  trenching  is  practi- 
cable. In  regions  where  there  is  no  drift,  the  mantle  rock  is  thinner  than 
in  most  parts  of  this  area,  and  it  is  thinner,  as  a  rule,  on  slopes  than  on 
level  lands,  as  illustrated  at  many  points  in  this  region.  In  general,  solid 
rock  is  likely  to  be  nearer  the  surface  on  steep  slopes  than  elsewhere. 

The  walls  of  trenches  in  the  broken  limestone  would  stand  with  little 
or  no  support.  Trench  walls  in  the  drift  above  the  limestone  would  need 
revetment,  if  the  trenches  were  to  be  more  than  temporary.  This  was 
illustrated  by  the  slumping  in  the  trenches  at  Camp  Grant  during  the 
winter  and  spring  of  1917-18.  The  methods  of  revetment  in  the  clayey 
parts  of  the  drift  would  be  somewhat  different  from  those  in  the  gravelly 
and  sandy  parts. 

The   various   problems    connected    with    trenching   find    ample   illus- 


POINTS    OF    MILITARY    SIGNIFICANCE  29 

tration  in  the  vicinity  of  Camp.  In  no  part  of  the  upland  area  near 
Camp,  would  trenches  of  ordinary  depth  reach  the  ground-water  surface 
(water-table,  pp.  17-8).  On  the  flood  plains  of  streams  even  shallow 
trenches  might  reach  the  water-table,  especially  in  wet  seasons.  In  such 
places  as  the  Pecatonica  flats  (Plate  II,  and  Rockford  map),  where  the 
water-table  is  close  to  the  surface,  dry  trenches  would  be  impossible  most 
of  the  year.  Sample  trenches  there  would  illustrate  quickly  the  difficulties 
of  trenching  in  such  positions.  The  flood-plains  of  other  streams  would 
illustrate  the  same  difficulties,  though  less  pointedly. 

While  flood-plains  like  that  of  the  Pecatonica  are  places  where  it 
would  be  impossible  for  an  army  to  dig  itself  in  and  remain  in  comfort 
for  any  considerable  period,  they  might,  under  some  circumstances,  be 
good  places  in  which  to  force  an  enemy  to  dig  himself  in.  A  heavy  rain 
would  make  his  position  virtually  untenable.  In  cases  where  the  ''ele- 
ments" can  be  utilized  against  the  enemy,  the  opportunity  should  not  be 
neglected.  Conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  Pecatonica  bottoms  are  found 
in  the  bottoms  of  some  of  the  larger  valleys  of  northern  France,  and  on 
the  low  plain  near  the  coast  of  Flanders. 

Tunneling  and  mining  have  been  important  in  some  places  in  the 
European  battle-fields,  both  in  Italy  and  France,  and  while  the  variety 
of  rock  near  Camp  Grant  available  for  studies  of  this  sort  is  not  great, 
the  limestone  in  the  steep  slopes  of  the  Kishwaukee,  above  Camp,  and  in 
the  steep  slopes  of  the  Rock  below  the  Kishwaukee,  afford  opportunity 
for  practice  in  tunneling  in  rock  which  is  excavated  rather  easily.  Prob- 
lems in  the  timbering  of  tunnels  or  other  excavations  also  could  be  studied. 
Tunneling  in  the  mantle  rock  would  be  much  easier  than  in  the  limestone, 
but  the  problems  of  support  would  be  much  more  serious.  Expert  advice 
as  to  the  formation  which  was  suitable  for  tunneling  proved  to  be  of  de- 
cisive importance  to  the  Allies  in  at  least  one  critical  juncture  of  the  war. 

On  the  Western  Front,  sunken  roads  and  covered  railways  are  said 
to  have  been  made  in  some  places.  Where  such  roads  are  to  be  made,  it 
is  manifestly  of  importance  to  know  the  location  of  materials  which  can 
be  easily  excavated,  and  their  ability  to  stand  under  varying  conditions  of 
moisture. 

The  study  of  problems  such  as  those  suggested  above,  in  advance  of 
actual  field  operations,  can  hardly  fail  to  be  of  critical  value.  Studies  of 
this  sort  are  not  being  overlooked  by  the  Germans.  On  the  contrary,  they 
are  being  carried  out  systematically  and  in  great  detail.  Geologists,  or 
engineers  who  understand  geology,  give  advice  as  to  the  location  of  trenches, 
taking  into  account  ease  of  excavation,  possibilities  of  drainage,  and  ability 
of  material  to  stand  both  when  wet  and  when  dry.  As  in  the  case  of  road- 
making,  they  even  advise  in  advance  what  tools  men  should  bring  with 


30  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

them  when  they  enter  new  territory.  That  the  Germans  have  used  geolo- 
gists extensively  and  intensively,  is  one  of  the  many  evidences  of  their 
thorough  understanding  of  the  physical  problems  of  warfare. 

Water  Supply 

Since  the  water  of  the  streams  of  this  region  is  unsuitable  for  drink- 
ing, and  springs  are  too  few  to  serve  as  an  important  source  of  supply, 
the  chief  reliance  must  be  on  wells,  and  it  is  important  that  the  sources 
of  well  water  and  the  possibilities  of  its  contamination,  be  well  under- 
stood. Failure  on  this  point  has  produced  disastrous  results  in  more  than 
one  military  campaign  of  the  past. 

It  has  been  stated  already  that  well  water  is  rain  water  which  has 
entered  the  ground.  In  some  cases,  it  has  moved  long  distances  from  its 
place  of  entrance  before  it  is  drawn  from  wells  for  use.  In  regions  of 
dense  population,  as  in  large  villages  and  cities,  or  even  in  thickly  settled 
farming  communities,  shallow  wells  are  unsafe,  unless  properly  located, 
properly  made,  and  properly  protected,  for  in  such  regions  sources  of 
contamination  are  numerous. 


Fig.  16. — Shows  how  a  well,  at  2,  might  be  contaminated  by  drainage  from 
a  stable  or  other  farm  building  at  x.  The  water  might  run  down  over  the  surface 
into  the  well  unless  the  mouth  of  the  well  is  protected  against  it,  or  water  from  the 
stable  might  sink  into  the  ground  and  flow  down  the  water  surface,  WW,  into  the 
well  if  the  well  is  not  cased  so  as  to  exclude  it. 

Underground  water  moves  down  slope,  just  as  surface  water  does. 
If  a  stable  is  situated  at  x  (fig.  16),  not  only  may  surface  drainage  from 
it  reach  a  well  at  2,  unless  the  top  of  the  well  is  protected  against  it,  but 
drainage  from  the  stable  may  sink  beneath  the  surface,  and  find  its  way 
into  the  well,  unless  the  well  is  so  constructed  as  to  exclude  it.  Before 
reaching  the  well,  the  water  has  been  filtered  in  passing  through  the  earth, 
but  inadequate  filtering  would  not  destroy  harmful  elements  in  it.  If  the 
well  is  cased  so  ass  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  water  above  a  level  which 
is  considerably  below  the  water-table,  WW,  contamination  from  the  surface 
is  likely  to  be  prevented.  The  modern  method  of  drilling  wells  from  the 
surface  and  casing  them  down  some  distance  below  the  water-table,  accom- 
plishes this  result.  The  old-fashioned  "dug"  well,  open  at  the  top  and 
not  cased,  was  subject  to  contamination  unless  its  site  was  so  chosen  as  to 
prevent  surface  or  sub-surface  drainage  into  it.     The  curbing  of  the  open 


POINTS   OF    MILITARY   SIGNIFICANCE  31 

well  does  not  prevent  the  entrance  of  contaminated  water.  If  such  a 
well  were  cased  from  a  level  above  the  highest  stand  of  water  in  the  well, 
down  to  a  level  considerably  below  the  water-table  of  dry  seasons,  its  water 
probably  would  be  safe. 

The  six  wells  which  supply  Camp  Grant  with  water  are  on  the  flood- 
plain  of  the  river,  west  of  the  northern  part  of  Camp,  where  the  elevation 
of  the  surface  is  about  693  feet.  In  depth  the  wells  range  from  153  feet 
to  185  feet.  All  are  in  drift,  none  reaching  the  rock  beneath  (fig.  5).  The 
lower  parts  of  the  wells  are  in  coarse  sand  which  carries  abundant  water. 
Not  only  is  surface  water  excluded,  but  the  wells  are  cased  so  that  water 
enters  them  only  at  depths  of  140  feet  or  more.  At  the  bottoms  of  the 
wells,  strainers  are  inserted  to  keep  out  the  sand  which  might  otherwise 
come  up  with  the  water  in  the  vigorous  pumping  necessary  to  supply  the 
Camp.     The  topographic  position  of  the  wells  is  shown  in  figure  17.    The 

.      w^  »~»    ^^7^=^  80° 

■w^TT]fa£L^ — »  688 

Fig.  17. — Diagram  showing  the  general  position  of  the  Camp  Grant  wells. 
R  =  the  river,  W,  the  site  of  the  wells  on  the  flood-plain  just  above  the  river). 
The  broken  line  represents  the  ground-water  surface,  which  is  scarcely  below  the 
surface  of  the  flood-plain.  The  figures  at  the  right  represent  approximate  ele- 
vations above  sea-level.     Length  of  section  about  2  miles. 

water-level  was  found  to  be  only  6  to  8  feet  below  the  surface,  and  but 
■little  above  the  level  of  the  river  at  the  time  (summer)  when  the  wells 
were  drilled.  In  wet  times,  the  surface  of  the  ground-water  would  have 
been  higher,  probably  at  all  times  a  little  above  the  stream. 

The  water  which  enters  the  wells  from  depths  of  140  feet  or  more,  has 
been  filtered  through  sand  for  a  long  time,  and  in  the  process  any  harmful 
elements  it  may  have  contained  when  it  sank  beneath  the  surface,  have 
been  removed,  or  their  injurious  qualities  destroyed. 

The  great  volume  of  water  in  the  drift  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
the  wells  have  supplied  more  than  2,000,000  gallons  of  water  per  day, 
when  so  much  was  needed,  and  could  supply  much  more  if  occasion  de- 
manded. There  is  in  fact  a  volume  of  water  in  the  drift  of  the  drift-filled 
valley  (fig.  5)  far  in  excess  of  that  in  the  river  itself.  The  pumping  of 
the  water  from  the  wells  draws  down  the  water-surface  immediately  about 
them,  and  this  causes  the  continuous  flow  of  water  toward  the  wells  from 
all  sides. 

In  permanent  camps,  it  is  possible  to  secure  an  adequate  supply  of 
good  water  if  camp  sites  are  intelligently  chosen.  But  in  actual  warfare, 
when  the  scene  of  operations  changes  frequently,  a  safe  and  reliable 
source  of  supply  is  not  always  at  hand,  and  the  thirsty  soldier  must  be 


32  THE  ENVIRONMENT   OP   CAMP   GRANT 

on  his  guard  against  wells  or  other  sources  of  supply  which  are  likely  to 
be  contaminated,  either  by  the  enemy  or  in  any  other  way.  As  to  poisoned 
wells,  the  geologist  has  no  source  of  information  beyond  that  of  other  men ; 
but  he  may  have  some  basis  for  judgment  as  to  the  probable  safety  of 
water  from  other  wells,  and  from  springs. 

The  conditions  affecting  ground-water  and  well-water  in  the  region 
about  Camp  Grant  are  not  unlike  those  found  in  many  other  regions,  and 
illustrate  general  principles  which  are  applicable  widely.  Most  of  the  shal- 
low wells  are  in  the  gravel,  sand,  or  clayey  material  which  overlies  the  lime- 
stone, and  in  the  terraces  and  on  the  flood-plains  abundant  water  can  be  had 
at  shallow  depths.  The  sand  and  gravel  are  porous,  and  surface  water,  de- 
scending, circulates  freely  through  them.  This  free  circulation  facilitates  the 
contamination  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  ground- water,  so  that  the  loca- 
tion, construction  and  protection  of  the  wells  is  doubly  important.  But  even 
under  these  conditions,  well  sites  may,  in  some  cases,  be  so  chosen  as  to 
insure  relatively  pure  water.  Thus  a  well  at  A  (fig.  18)  is  not  likely  to 
be  contaminated  by  surface  or  sub-surface  drainage,  for  the  slope  both  of 


Fig.  18. — Diagram  to  show  various  relations  of  wells  to  the  surface.  A  well 
at  A  would  not  be  likely  to  be  contaminated  by  surface  or  sub-surface  drainage. 
The  well  at  B  or  C  might  be  contaminated  by  surface  drainage  from  above.  If  the 
mouths  of  the  wells  at  B  and  C  were  protected  against  surface  drainage,  and  if  the 
wells  were  cased  down  to  a  level  considerably  below  the  water-table,  WW,  the 
water  in  them  probably  would  be  safe. 

the  surface,  and  of  the  surface  of  ground- water,  WW,  are  such  as  to  divert 
surface  drainage  from  it.  Wells  at  B  and  C,  on  the  other  hand,  would  be 
subject  to  contamination  both  from  surface  and  under-ground  drainage 
if  there  are  farm  buildings  on  the  slope  above,  unless  surface  drainage  is 
diverted  from  their  tops,  or  the  wells  cased  from  the  top  down  to  a  level 
considerably  below  the  water-table.  If  there  is  such  a  casing,  any  polluted 
waters  which  might  sink  below  the  surface  would  go  down  to  the  water- 
table,  WW,  and  flow  over  this  surface  to  the  river,  R. 

In  the  vicinity  of  cities,  or  in  other  regions  which  are  closely  settled, 
the  danger  of  contamination  is  greater  than  elsewhere,  and  shallow  wells 
are  to  be  suspected.  But  even  in  such  situations,  water  from  deep  wells 
is  safe  if  surface  waters  are  shut  out  (fig.  19). 

Protection  against  local  contamination  does  not  insure  against  con- 
tamination at  the  place  where  the  water  now  in  the  well  entered  the 
ground.    The  best  the  geologist  can  do  in  such  a  case,  is  to  indicate  proba- 


POINTS   OF    MILITARY   SIGNIFICANCE 


33 


bilities  of  purity.  In  many  cases  this  can  be  done  by  determining  where 
the  water  comes  from,  and  its  course  before  it  reaches  the  well,  determina- 
tions which,  in  many  cases,  are  easily  made,  if  the  geology  of  the  region 
is  understood.  In  doubtful  cases,  water  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  until 
tests  are  made  by  a  sanitary  expert.  If  it  is  impracticable  to  await  his 
verdict,  the  water  should  be  boiled  before  drinking. 

In  many  regions  where  mantle  rock  is  thin,  wells  must  be  sunk  into 
solid  rock.  This  is  the  case,  for  example,  in  most  of  the  area  of  this  region 
west  of  Rock  River.    In  such  situations,  knowledge  of  the  underlying  rock 


Elevation. 
693.19 


12  i 


'MX,:: 


./■     ''■ 


0jKi:: 


Strainer 

/63'-2" 

Fig.  19. — The  log  of  one  of  the  Rockford  wells,  showing  depth  (163  feet),  the 
size  of  the  bore,  the  position  of  the  strainer  at  the  bottom,  and  the  material  en- 
countered in  drilling.  The  water  surface  was  only  about  6  feet  below  the  land 
surface  at  the  well  site.     (Alvord  and  Burdick.) 


and  of  the  depth  of  the  water-table  may  be  of  great  help  in  determining 
sites  where  the  desired  quantity  of  water  can  be  had,  and  what  its  quality 
is  likely  to  be.     In  Rockford  and  Belvidere,  for  example,  there  are  deep 


34  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP   GRANT 

wells,  some  of  them  nearly  2000  feet  deep,  which,  go  down  to  a  thick  for- 
mation of  porous  sandstone  (the  St.  Croix  sandstone,  &g.  5),  which  comes 
to  the  surface  and  receives  its  water  in  a  sparsely  populated  region  more 
than  a  hundred  miles  to  the  north.  The  existence  of  this  sandstone  and 
its  approximate  depth  were  known  before  the  wells  were  put  down.  The 
water  from  these  wells  stands  little  chance  of  pollution,  if  protected,  as 
they  are,  against  local  surface  drainage. 

The  water  of  the  region  about  Camp  Grant  is  "hard";  that  is  it 
contains  much  lime  (lime  carbonate).  This  makes  it  somewhat  objection- 
able for  boiler  use,  but  is  not  prohibitive.  Water  from  wells  which  are  in 
limestone,  or  in  surface  earths  (mantle  rock)  which  contain  much  lime- 
stone, as  about  Camp1  Grant,  are  sure  to  be  hard.  This  does  not  injure 
them  for  cement  work,  and  is  not  especially  harmful  to  man. 

It  may  happen  in  some  places  that  the  supply*  of  uncontaminated 
water  is  scanty,  while  other  waters  are  abundant.  In  such  cases,  it  is 
worth  remembering  that  waters  which  are  not  suitable  for  drinking  may  be 
serviceable  for  boiler  use,  or  for  cement  work. 

The  promptness  with  which  water  can  be  secured  is  in  some  cases  a 
matter  of  great  importance.  A  case  in  the  present  war  is  cited  where,  un- 
der geologic  advice,  a  well  sunk  15  feet  gave  an  aedquate  supply  of  water, 
when  the  alternative  was  piping  it  10  kilometers  (between  6  and  7  miles). 

Gas  Problems 
Many  of  the  very  small  valleys  which  are  narrow  and  relatively  deep, 
such  as  those  just  east  of  Camp,  many  of  those  east  of  Rock  River  north 
of  Camp  (west  border  of  Belvidere  area),  and  many  of  the  ravines  leading 
to  the  Rock  below  the  Kishwaukee,  offer  opportunity  for  the  study  of  the 
effect  of  topography  on  the  behavior  of  gases.  The  tiny  ravines  just  west 
of  Camp,  if  not  too  small,  might  serve  the  same  purpose.  Into  such  ra- 
vines, noxious  gases  heavier  than  air  might  settle  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
make  them  dangerous,  even  when  the  ridges  between  are  safe.  Studies  in 
problems  of  this  sort,  in  advance  of  service  at  the  front,  might  prove  to 
be  of  value. 

Timber 
It  already  has  been  noted  that  there  are  few,  large  areas  of  timber 
(shown  in  green  on  the  maps)  in  the  region.  The  trees  of  most  of  the 
forest  patches  are  young  and  small,  the  older  and  larger  ones  having  been 
cut.  Most  of  the  timbered  areas  are  pastured,  so  that  dense  underbrush 
is  wanting  in  most  places.  In  spite  of  the  meagerness  of  forests,  the  stands 
of  timber  are  such  in  one  part  or  another  of  the  area  accessible  to  Camp, 
as  to  offer  opportunity  for  the  study  of  military  problems  in  which  scant 
forests  play  a  part. 


points  of  militaky  significance  35 

Summary 

The  several  topics  which,  have  been  discussed  briefly  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs,  suggest  some  of  the  ways  in  which  geologic  knowledge  may 
be  of  value  to  an  army  in  active  service.  The  points  which  have  been 
mentioned  are  those  which  find  illustration  in  the  region  about  Camp 
Grant,  but  most  of  them  can  be  applied  widely.  In  many  regions,  too,  a 
knowledge  of  geology  may  help  in  other  ways.  It  may  be  of  great  impor- 
tance to  know  (1)  the  strength  of  various  sorts  of  rock  in  a  region  where 
foundations  for  heavy  structural  work  are  to  be  placed,  (2)  the  relative 
strength  of  the  various  sorts  of  rock  available  for  building,  (3)  the  ease 
with  which  they  can  be  worked,  and  (4)  their  behavior  under  shell  fire,  as 
for  example  their  tendency  to  splinter.  In  mountain  regions,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  know  in  advance  localities  where  slumping,  land-sliding,  and  snow- 
sliding  are  likely  to  take  place,  either  in  the  course  of  nature,  or  under 
the  unnatural  disturbances  of  shell  fire.  There  are  many  localities,  too, 
where  the  earthy  matter  of  slopes  creeps  when  wet,  and  possibilities  of 
this  sort  should  be  taken  into  account  when  roads,  railroads,  trenches,  or 
structural  work  of  any  sort,  are  located.  In  one  case  it  is  said  that  von 
Hindenburg's  army  was  able  to  make  its  way  through  certain  marshes  by 
choosing  routes  where  the  bottom  was  solid,  as  shown  by  the  plants  which 
grew  there,  while  the  Russians,  unable  to  distinguish  between  safe  and 
treacherous  bottoms,  were  defeated.  The  Germans'  knowledge  of  botany 
as  well  as  geology  was  turned  to  good  account  here. 

Most  of  the  considerations  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraphs 
have  possibilities  of  utilization  in  two  ways.  Not  only  may  the  army  which 
is  in  a  position  to  choose  take  advantage  of  geologic  conditions,  but  it  may 
be  able  to  force  its  opponent  to  accept  positions  and  conditions  which  are 
disadvantageous.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  topography  and  geology  can- 
not fail  to  be  useful  in  many  ways  and  at  many  junctures,  and  possibilities 
of  this  sort  should  not  be  overlooked.  Since  geologists  can  hardly  be  at 
hand  at  all  times  at  every  place  where  war  activities  are  in  progress,  it 
is  desirable  that  as  many  men  as  possible  in  each  army  unit  know  some- 
thing of  the  subject  and  its  possibilities. 

Reference  already  has  been  made  to  the  effective  use  which  the  enemy 
has  made  of  the  expert  knowledge  of  geologists,  and  to  some  of  the  ways 
in  which  their  advice  is  utilized.  It  is  said  that  170  experienced  men  of 
this  class  are  attached  to  the  staffs  of  the  German-Austrian  armies.  In 
addition  to  their  advice  concerning  road  construction,  water  supply,  trench- 
ing, and  tunneling  for  their  own  armies,  their  knowledge  of  the  ground 
occupied  by  those  opposed  to  them  has  been  turned  to  their  own  advantage 
more  than  once. 


CHAPTER   III— THE    HISTORY    OF    THE    LAND 

The  history  of  the  area  about  Camp  Grant  is  somewhat  different  from 
the  history  of  the  area  about  any  other  cantonment.  If  the  age  of  a  par- 
ticular land  area  is  dated  from  the  time  when  it  finally  became  land,  the 
area  about  Camp  Grant  is  neither  one  of  the  older  nor  one  of  the  younger 
parts  of  North  America.  There  are  older  lands  (i.  e.  lands  whose  upper- 
most rock  formations  are  of  greater  age)  to  the  north,  and  younger  lands 
to  the  south.  The  land  is  still  extending  itself  southward  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  as  may  be  seen  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  where  the  mud 
carried  down  by  the  river  is  being  built  into  new  land  along  the  shore  of 
the  Gulf. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  old  the  earth  is;  but  that  is 
beyond  present  knowledge.  It  is  known,  however,  that  its  history  is  a 
remarkable  one,  and  though  all  its  details  have  not  been  determined, 
enough  is  known  so  that  its  general  outline  can  be  stated  with  much 
confidence. 

The  Bed  Rock 
The  known  geologic  history  of  the  region  about  Camp  Grant  goes 
back;  to  a  distant  time,  many  millions  of  years  ago,  when  a  shallow  sea 
covered  northern  Illinois.  It  probably  connected  freely  with  the  ocean  to 
the  south,  where  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  now  is,  and  perhaps  with  ocean  waters 
which  occupied  the  sites  of  the  Arctic  and  Atlantic  oceans  on  the  north 
and  east.  This  sea  was  only  a  few  scores,  or  at  most  a  very  few  hundreds 
of  feet  deep.  On  its  bottom  were  deposited  the  materials  which  later 
became  the  limestone  which  lies  beneath  the  area  about  the  Camp,  and 
which  may  be  seen  in  a  number  of  quarries  within  5  miles  of  Camp,  at 
many  points  on  both  slopes  to  the  Kishwaukee  River  above  Camp,  and  at 
many  places  along  the  Rock  River  below  Camp.  Small  quarries  which  are 
readily  accessible  for  examination  may  be  found  near  the  west  end  of  the 
rifle  range,  both  north  and  south  of  the  river,  in  the  western  part  of  Sec- 
tion 18,  2  miles  east-southeast  of  Camp  Grant  railway  station,  in  the  low 
swell  which  is  indicated  by  the  720-foot  contour  in  Section  21,  a  mile 
southwest  of  Camp,  and  on  the  west  side  of  the  Kishwaukee,  in  the  same 
section.  There  are  much  larger  quarries  in  Rockford  (S.  %  of  sec.  15). 
The  limestone  contains  many  shells  and  other  hard  parts  of  animals  which 
lived  in  the  shallow  sea, — is,  indeed,  made  of  the  shells  and  other  secretions 
of  sea  life.  The  area  must  have  been  beneath  the  sea  for  a  very  long 
period  of  time,  in  order  to  allow  the  accumulation  of  shells,  coral,  etc.,  in 

(36) 


HISTORY   OF    THE   LAND  37 

quantities  sufficient  to  make  the  300  to  400  feet  of  limestone  which  under- 
lies the  upland  of  the  region.  Its  accumulation  may  have  been  at  some 
such  rate  as  a  foot  a  century,  though  the  rate  is  not  known.  Under  favor- 
able conditions  limestone  now  is  accumulating  at  about  this  rate. 

The  limestone  in  sight  at  most  of  the  quarries  and  along  the  slopes 
about  Camp  is  known  to  geologists  as  Galena  limestone  or  Galena  dolomite. 
Limestone  is  composed  chiefly  of  calcium  carbonate.  Dolomite  differs  from 
limestone  in  containing  a  considerable  amount  of  magnesium.  In  other 
Words  it  is  the  carbonate  of  calcium  and  magnesium.  Popularly,  dolomite 
frequently  is  called  limestone.  The  Galena  dolomite  got  its  name  from  the 
city  of  Galena,  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  state,  where  the  same 
formation  is  found.  About  the  city  of  Galena,  the  limestone  contains  an 
ore  of  lead,  called  galena,  and  this  mineral  gave  its  name  to  the  mining 
district  settlement  which  later  became  the  city  of  that  name. 

Immediately  beneath  the  Galena  limestone  lies  other  limestone  known 
variously  as  Trenton  limestone,  Platteville  limestone,  and  Beloit  limestone. 
The  first  of  these  names  has  been  in  use  longest,  but  Platteville  is  now  pre- 
ferred. The  name  is  taken  from  the  city  of  Platteville  in  southwestern 
Wisconsin  where  the  formation  comes  to  the  surface. 

Both  the  Galena  and  Platteville  limestones  are  in  layers.  The  layers 
or  beds  are  nearly  horizontal,  but  they  decline  (dip)  a  little  to  the  south 
and  east.  As  a  result  of  this  slight  dip,  which  amounts  to  only  a  few  feet 
in  a  mile,  older  formations  come  to  the  surface  from  beneath  the  limestone 
toward  the  northwest,  and  younger  ones  come  in  over  it  to  the  southeast 
(fig.  5). 

The  oldest  formation  which  comes  to  the  surface  in  the  region  is  sand- 
stone (St.  Peter  sandstone).  It  comes  up  from  beneath  the  Platteville 
limestone  (1)  near  the  northwest  corner  of  the  area  of  the  Eockford  map, 
and  (2)  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  area  of  the  Kings  map.  In  the 
former  place  it  is  seen  in  the  valley  of  Sugar  River,  where  the  northern- 
most road  shown  on  this  map  crosses  the  river.  In  the  southwestern  cor- 
ner of  the  Kings  area  it  is  seen  at  various  places  in  the  slopes,  and  here 
and  there  forms  distinct  though  low  cliffs,  some  of  which  are  bare  and 
rather  picturesque.  The  material  of  the  St.  Peter  sandstone  was  deposited 
as  sand.  Its  change  to  sandstone  came  later,  by  cementation ;  but  the  sand- 
stone is  not  very  firm,  and  crumbles  to  sand  readily.  The  name  is  taken 
from  a  locality  in  Minnesota. 

The  youngest  formation  of  bedded  rock  which  has  considerable  extent 
in  the  region  is  shale  (Maquoketa  shale,  named  from  a  river  in  Iowa), 
which  overlies  the  Galena  limestone,  some  miles  southeast  of  Camp 
Grant.  It  is  exposed  in  the  bank  of  the  South  Branch  of  the  Kish- 
waukee  River,  iy2  miles  west-northwest  of  Kingston,  about  18  miles  south- 


38  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 

east  of  the  Camp.  Like  the  limestone  below  it,  the  shale  contains  shells 
of  sea  animals,  and  like  the  limestone,  the  material  of  which  it  is  composed 
was  deposited  on  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  sea.  When  deposited  the  mate- 
rial of  the  shale  was  mud.  Later  the  mud  was  consolidated  into  rock 
(shale)  by  cementation  and  by  pressure.  The  cementing  material  was 
precipitated  from  the  sea  water,  or  possibly  from  waters  which  percolated 
through  the  mud  after  the  area  became  land.  The  shale,  however,  is  not 
very  hard.  In  places  it  contains  so  much  lime  carbonate,  as  to  be  earthy 
limestone,  rather  than  shale. 

This  shale  formation,  now  restricted  to  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
area  covered  by  the  Belvidere  map,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  area  of  the 
Kirkland  map,  probably  once  covered  all  the  area  shown  on  the  four  ac- 
companying maps. 

Another  formation  of  limestone  probably  comes  in  over  the  shale  near 
the  extreme  southeastern  corner  of  the  Kirkland  area,  southeast  of  King- 
ston. Its  existence  in  this  area  is  inferred  rather  than  known,  for  it  is  not, 
known  to  appear  at  the  surface.  This  formation  {Niagara  limestone,  named 
from  Niagara  Falls),  like  the  shale,  probably  extended  over  the  whole  area 
at  one  time.  Its  absence  now  is  the  result  of  erosion  which  has  worn  it 
away. 

A  remnant  of  a  formation  intermediate  between  the  Maquoketa  shale 
and  the  Niagara  limestone  is  known  in  the  hill-top  quarry  4  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Belvidere,  but  it  is  not  of  great  importance  in  this  connection. 

Of  the  history  of  the  region  prior  to  the  deposition  of  the  formations 
which  can  be  seen,  we  know  something.  Drillings  for  deep  wells  have  made 
known  what  lies  beneath  the  formations  which  can  be  seen  (fig.  5).  Fur- 
thermore, these  lower  formations  come  to  the  surface  farther  to  the  north 
and  northwest,  in  Wisconsin. 

A  Long  Period  op  Erosion 

After  the  deposition  of  the  formations  mentioned  above  (the  St.  Peter 
sandstone,  Platteville  and  Galena  limestone,  Maquoketa  shale  and  Niagara 
limestone),  this  area,  with  considerable  tracts  about  it,  emerged  from  the 
.sea.  Either  the  area  was  crowded  up  from  beneath  the  water,  as  many 
other  areas  of  sea  bottom  have  been  at  various  times  in  the  earth's  history, 
or  the  great  basins  which  held  the  sea  water  sank,  becoming  deeper  and 
more  capacious,  and  drawing  off  the  shallow  water  from  much  of  what  is 
now  the  continental  area. 

When  the  area  of  this  region  became  land,  the  rains  fell  upon  it  much 
as  now,  and  the  water,  running  off,  began  to  wear  away  the  surface  mate- 
rial, even  as  the  run-off  from  every  shower  and  from  every  melting  snow, 
now  carries  away  a  little  of  the  soil,  as  mud,  sand,  etc.    It  is  the  material 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LAND  39 

thus  washed  away  which  makes  the  streams  muddy  after  every  heavy 
rain,  and  during  the  rapid  melting  of  every  snow.  All  the  mud  washed 
from  the  surface  of  this  region,  is  started  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It 
goes  down  the  creeks  and  small  rivers  to  the  Rock,  is  carried  by  that 
stream  to  the  Mississippi,  and  by  the  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf.  Some  of  the 
mud  stops  on  the  way,  being  deposited  on  the  flood  plains  of  the  valleys 
through  which  it  is  carried.  But  all  sediment  thus  dropped  in  one  flood, 
is  likely  to  be  taken  up  and  carried  on  at  some  later  time.  When  it  finally 
reaches  the  Gulf  much  of  it  comes  to  rest,  and  after  being  buried,  makes 
new  deposits  of  shale.  This,  in  turn,  may  become  land  at  some  future 
time. 

During  the  long  ages  following  the  conversion  of  the  area  about  Camp 
Grant  from  shallow  sea-bottom  to  land,  considerable  but  unknown  thick- 
nesses of  rock  were  worn  away.  If  the  Maquoketa  shale,  the  Niagara  lime- 
stone, and  a  still  younger  formation  which  perhaps  once  overlay  the  region 
could  be  put  back,  they  would  raise  the  surface  at  Camp  Grant  from  its 
present  level,  about  730  feet  above  the  sea,  some  hundreds  of  feet  (proba- 
bly 500  to  1000).  Not  only  have  great  thicknesses  of  rock  been  removed 
from  the  surface,  but  at  the  end  of  this  long  period  of  erosion,  the  surface 
was  affected  by  many  valleys,  much  as  now.  There  was  at  least  one  trunk 
valley,  two  or  more  large  tributary  valleys,  and  minor  tributaries  both  to 
the  main  valley  and  to  its  principal  tributaries,  the  whole  making  a  rami- 
fying system,  somewhat  similar  to  the  valley  system  of  the  present,  though 
much  deeper.  These  valleys  in  the  surface  of  the  bed  rock  did  not  alto- 
gether correspond  in  position  with  those  of  the  present  surface. 

The  Glacial  Period  and  the  Drift 
Long  ages  after  this  area  became  land,  and  after  hundreds  of  feet  of 
rock  had  been  worn  away  from  its  surface,  came  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able chapters  in  the  earth's  history.  This  region,  together  with  a  vast  area 
about  it,  was  covered  with  a  great  sheet  of  ice,  similar  to  that  which  now 
covers  most  of  Greenland. 

The  ice-sheet  of  Greenland  was  developed  from  snow.  In  modern 
times  more  snow  has  fallen  on  the  island  than  has  melted.  The  result  is 
a  great  area  in  which  the  snow  persists  from  year  to  year.  Snow  always 
is  transformed  into  ice  if  it  lies  long  on  the  ground  in  quantity.  The  last 
remnants  of  great  snow-banks,  like  those  of  February  and  March,  1918, 
in  this  region,  illustrate  the  point. 

When  by  long  accumulation  the  ice  formed  from  snow  becomes  very 
thick,  it  begins  to  spread.  The  ice-cover  of  Greenland  is  creeping  slowly 
out  from  the  central  part  of  the  island  where  the  ice  is  thickest,  toward 
the  borders  where  it  is  thin.  Similarly,  the  ice-sheet  which  formerly  cov- 
ered some  millions  of  square  miles  *in    the    northeastern    part    of    North 


40 


THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 


America  (fig.  20),  moved  slowly  out  from  certain  centers  where  it  was 
thickest,  toward  its  edges  where  it  was  thin.  This  period  of  the  earth's 
history,  known  as  the  Glacial  Period,  was  relatively  recent  compared  with 
the  time  when  the  limestone  of  the  region  was  being  deposited  on  the  sea 
bottom ;  but  in  terms  of  human  history  it  was  long  ago. 

One  of  the  strange  things  about  the  glacial  period  is  the  fact  that 
there  were  several  great  ice-sheets,  one  after  another,  separated  by  periods 
when  the  climate  was  relatively  mild.  During  at  least  one  of  these  inter- 
glacial  epochs,  we  know  that  the  climate  was  warmer  than  now. 


Fig.  20. — Map  showing  the  extent  of  glaciation  in  North  America, 
al  Paper  106,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 


Profession- 


HISTORY    OF    THE   LAND 


41 


All  the  ice-sheets  were  not  equally  extensive,  and  no  two  of  them 
covered  exactly  the  same  area.  The  region  about  Camp  Grant  was  over- 
spread by  at  least  two  of  them,  and  perhaps  by  more.     That  more  than 


lllinoian 
drift  sheet 


Glacial  outwash 
and  alluvium 


Fig.  21. — Sketch  map  showing  the  position  of  the  edge  of  the  Wisconsin  ice- 
sheet  in  the  vicinity  of  Camp  Grant.  Professional  Paper  106,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey. 


42  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 

one  ice-sheet  covered  the  region  is  known  in  various  ways,  but  perhaps 
the  simplest  proof  is  the  fact  that  borings  for  wells  in  the  south  part  of  the 
area  shown  on  the  Kirkland  map,  have  shown  an  old  soil  beneath  one  sheet 
of  drift,  and  above  another.1  This  means  that  after  the  lower  sheet  of 
drift  was  deposited,  a  soil  developed  on  it,  in  which  vegetation  grew. 
Later,  another  ice-sheet  buried  the  soil  beneath  another  sheet  of  drift.  In 
most  places,  the  old  soil  doubtless  was  worn  away  and  destroyed  past 
recognition  by  the  later  ice;  but  it  was  preserved  in  some  places.  As  a 
rule,  this  old  soil  is  seen  only  when  excavations  are  being  made,  and  then 
only  in  some  places.  The  old  soils  which  have  become  known  in  this  re- 
gion, were  beneath  20  to  60  or  more  feet  of  drift.  The  latest  ice-sheet 
which  covered  this  area  is  known  to  geologists  as  the  Illinoian  ice-sheet. 

The  latest  of  the  four  or  five  ice-sheets  of  the  Glacial  Period  (known 
as  the  Wisconsin  ice-sheet)  came  within  a  few  miles  of  this  region  but  did 
not  reach  the  site  of  the  Camp.  Its  edge  was  but  a  few  miles  east  of  the 
area  of  the  Belvidere  and  Kirkland  maps  (fig.  21),  and  but  a  few  miles 


Fig.  22. — Diagram  showing  the  way  in  which  a  surface  may  be  altered  by  the 
deposition  of  drift.  The  upper  portion  of  the  figure  is  drift,  and  the  lower  part 
rock.  It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  the  valleys  in  the  present  surface  do  not  cor- 
respond in  position  with  the  valleys  in  the  surface  of  the  rock  beneath)  the  drift. 

north  of  the  area  of  the  Rockford  and  Belvidere  maps.  On  the  south,  this 
ice-sheet  probably  touched  the  southern  border  of  the  Kirkland  area. 

The  latest  ice-sheet  is  believed  to  have  disappeared  some  25,000  years 
(more  or  less)  ago.  The  older  ice-sheets,  including  those  which  covered 
the  area  under  consideration,  were  much  more  ancient. 

The  ice-sheets  moved  over  the  surface  very  slowly,  the  rate  probably 
not  exceeding  a  few  feet  a  day.  The  ice  was  hundreds  of  feet  thick, 
at  a  maximum  perhaps  even  more  than  1000,  and  such  a  body  of  ice, 
even  with  a  slow  rate  of  movement,  effectively  eroded  the  surface  over 
which  it  passed.  This  surface  was  somewhat  uneven,  the  result  of  the 
earlier  stream  erosion  which  had  made  valleys  similar  to  those  of  the  pres- 
ent surface,  but  deeper.  It  probably  was  covered  with  soil  and  decayed 
rock.  As  the  ice  moved  forward  over  this  uneven  surface,  its  bottom 
became  filled  with  debris  worn  from  its  bed.  The  ice  which  reached  north- 
ern Illinois  had  much  debris  which  it  had  brought  from  Wisconsin,  and 

lLeverett,  Frank,  U.   S.   Geological   Survey,  Mono.   XXXVIII,   1899. 


HISTORY   OP   THE   LAND  43 

the  ice  in  Wisconsin  had  much  which  it  had  brought  from  northern  Michi- 
gan and  Canada. 

When  an  ice-sheet  melts  away,  all  the  debris  which  it  carried  is  left 
on  the  surface,  and  is  known  as  drift.  These  deposits  of  drift,  if  thick, 
leave  the  surface  strangely  altered  (fig.  22). 

The  drift  within  20  miles  of  Camp  Grant  is  in  some  places  very  thick. 
On  the  upland  to  the  northeast,  it  is  as  much  as  100  feet  thick  in  many 
places,  as  is  known  by  the  records  of  the  many  deep  wells  on  the  upland 
north  of  Belvidere.  Drift  100  feet  thick  may  conceal  many  small  valleys 
in  the  surface  of  the  rock  beneath.  Other  wells,  on  the  other  hand,  reach 
the  limestone  beneath  the  drift  at  depths  of  40  to  60  feet,  and  in  still 
other  places  the  limestone  comes  almost  or  quite  to  the  surface. 

In  the  valley  at  Rockford,  one  of  the  deep  city  wells  went  down 
through  248  feet  of  drift  (gravel  and  sand)  before  reaching  rock.  A  well 
at  the  Rockford  Malleable  Iron  Works,  went  through  285  feet  of  drift, 
and  there  is  no  knowledge  that  this  well-site  is  over  the  deepest  part  of 
the  valley  as  it  existed  before  the  glacial  period.  The  surface  of  this  well 
is  on  the  terrace  40  feet  or  so  above  Rock  River.  These  records  show  that 
the  valley  in  the  rock  below  the  drift  was  more  than  250  feet  below  the 
bed  of  the  present  stream,  and  less  than  450  feet  above  sea  level2  before 
it  was  partly  filled  with  drift. 

The  valley  of  the  Pecatonica  River  and  the  valleys  of  Sugar  River 
and  of  Coon  Creek,  tributary  to  the  Pecatonica  from  the  north,  have  drift 
fillings  probably  200  feet  deep. 

The  records  of  well  drillings  therefore  show  that  the  surface  of  the 
rock'  beneath  the  drift  is  very  uneven,  and  that  it  is  affected  by  valleys 
much  deeper  than  any  of  those  in  the  present  surface.  Some  of  the  old 
valleys,  indeed,  are  completely  filled  with  drift,  while  others  are  but  partly 
filled  (fig.  22).  Of  the  former  no  trace  remains  at  the  surface,  and  their 
existence  and  position  are  known  only  by  deep  borings.  Probably  none 
but  small  valleys  were  completely  obliterated  by  the  deposition  of  the  drift. 

If  all  the  drift  were  removed,  the  total  relief  of  the  surface  would 
be  increased  250  feet  at  least,  and  probably  somewhat  more.  The  drift, 
therefore,  serves  to  even  up  the  surface,  especially  by  partly  filling  the 
valleys  in  the  surface  of  the  rock  beneath. 

The  general  direction  of  movement  of  the  ice  in  this  area  was  west- 
southwest  (S.  75°  W.).  This  is  shown  by  the  course  of  the  scratches 
(striae)  made  by  the  moving  ice  on  the  surface  of  the  limestone.  Such 
stria?  are  seen  on  the  limestone  only  where  its  surface  has  been  uncovered 
recently  by  the  removal  of  the  overlying  drift.  The  surface  of  limestone 
soon  weathers,  and  the  striae  disappear  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  where 


2Alden,  W.  C,  U.  S.  Geological   Survey,  Professional  Paper   106,  p.   114. 


44  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 

not  protected.  Striae  have  been  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  limestone  at 
the  quarry  southwest  of  Belvidere,  where  their  course  is  a  few  degrees 
north  of  west,  and  near  Rockford  and  Winnebago,  where  they  have  the 
direction  cited  at  the  beginning  of  this  paragraph. 

It  has  been  thought  that  the  general  direction  of  ice  movement  is  sug- 
gested by  the  topography  shown  on  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Belvidere 
map,  six  or  eight  miles  northwest  of  Belvidere,  where  there  are  drift  hills 
with  a  northeast-southwest  trend.  This  direction  however  does  not  cor- 
respond with  that  of  the  known  strise. 

The  area  of  the  western  front,  as  it  now  (Spring,  1918)  stands,  was 
not  affected  by  an  ice  sheet  during  the  glacial  epoch,  though  an  ice  sheet 
from  the  north  invaded  northern  Belgium.  There  were  valley  glaciers  in 
the  Vosges  Mountains,  especially  in  the  valleys  of  their  western  slope. 
These  valley  glaciers  left  considerable  thicknesses*  of  drift  locally;  and 
gravel,  analogous  to  the  gravel  and  sand  of  Rock  River  valley,  was  carried 
far  beyond  the  glaciers  down  the  valleys  leading  westward  from  the  moun- 
tains. 

The  Development  of  Existing  Valleys 

"When  the  last  ice-sheet  which  covered  this  region  (the  Illinoian  ice- 
sheet)  melted  away,  rain  waters  and  waters  from  melting  snows  flowed  off 
by  the  lowest  courses  open  to  them,  and  surface  drainage  was  re-established. 

The  valleys  of  the  region  fall  into  three  classes: 

1.  Some  of  the  old  valleys  were  not  filled  by  drift,  and  such  valleys 
were  followed  by  the  new  streams  after  the  ice  melted.  The  valley  of  the 
Pecatonica  is  an  example.  So  also  are  the  large  valleys  occupied  by  small 
streams,  already  referred  to  (p.  16).  In  these  cases,  the  present  creeks 
probably  are  much  smaller  than  the  pre-glacial  streams  which  flowed 
through  the  same  valleys. 

2.  Some  of  the  old  valleys  were  filled  completely.  Not  only  this,  but 
in  some  places  the  surface  of  the  drift  over  their  former  sites  is  actually 
higher  than  the  surface  of  adjacent  lands.  In  such  cases  the  new  streams 
did  not  follow  the  courses  of  their  predecessors.  Many  of  the  valleys  of  the 
small  creeks  of  the  area  appear  to  have  no  definite  relation  to  valleys  in 
the  limestone  beneath  the  drift. 

3.  Some  of  the  valleys  were  filled  in  some  places,  and  not  in  others. 
In  these  cases,  the  new  drainage  followed  the  old  valleys  where  they  were 
not  filled,  and  departed  from  them  where  they  were  filled.  The  valleys  of 
the  Rock  and  Kishwaukee  rivers  are  examples  of  this  type. 

ROCK   RIVER  VALLEY 

The  history  of  Rock  River  valley  in  this  region  is  both  complicated 
and  interesting,  and  illustrates  certain  types  of  changes  in  drainage  which 
glaciation  brings  about.    The  history  falls  into  four  chapters. 


HISTORY   OF    THE   LAND 


45 


1.  The  last  ice-sheet  which  is  known  to  have  covered  this  region 
is  known  as  the  Illinoian  ice  sheet.  Before  its  advent,  and  perhaps  before 
the  coming  of  any  of  its  predecessors,  there  was  a  deep  valley  along  the 
course  of  the  present  stream  from  the  Wisconsin  line  down  to  a  point 
somewhat  south  of  the  site  of  Camp  Grant.  Its  bottom  was  more  than 
250  feet  below  the  channel  of  the  present  river.  Below  Camp  Grant,  or 
more  exactly,  below  the  Kishwaukee,  the  continuation  of  this  old  valley 
was  to  the  south-southeast,  instead  of  south  westward  as  now   (fig.  23). 


PRINCETON 


L#  S/U.LE 


Fig.  23. — The  old  course  of  Rock  River,  before  the  Illinoian  glacial  epoch. 
The  course  of  the  river  and  its  tributaries  from  the  west  is  taken  from  Levereitt'a 
map  in  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  Monograph  XXXVIII. 


46  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 

North  of  the  Kishwaukee  thick  deposits  of  drift  were  made  in  the 
valley  by  the  Illinoian  ice-sheet,  or  its  predecessors,  or  both;  but  these 
deposits  nowhere  filled  the  valley  completely.  At  Rockford,  where  the 
map  shows  the  valley  to  be  narrow,  a  thick  body  of  drift  had  been  left  in 
the  valley,  almost  choking  it.  The  drift  filling  at  this  point  seems  to  have 
been  pushed  in  from  the  east,  and  crowded  the  river  over  to  the  west  side 
of  its  former  valley,  where  the  drift  was  shallow.  Later  when  the  channel 
was  lowered  by  erosion,  the  stream  uncovered,  for  a  short  distance,  the 
limestone  beneath  the  drift.  This  rock  bed  of  the  stream  became  the  site 
of  a  ford,  and  from  this  ford  on  rock  came  the  name  Rockford.  South  of 
this  point,  the  retreat  of  the  ice  left  the  valley  wide,  down  to  the  Kish- 
waukee. Farther  south,  the  old  valley  was  filled  with  drift  and  obliterated. 
Its  general  position  is  suggested  by  the  great  depths  of  drift  known  at  a 
few  points.  Leverett  thinks  it  passed  between  Lindenwood  and  Monroe,3 
some  10  miles  south-southeast  of  Camp  Grant.  Its  further  course  to  the 
southeast  probably  was  through  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  Kirkland 
area,  and  it  probably  led  to  what  is  now  the  Illinois  valley,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  big  bend  of  that  river  in  Bureau  County. 

2.  "When  drainage  re-established  itself  after  the  melting  of  the 
Illinoian  ice-sheet,  the  river  followed  the  unfilled  part  of  the  old  valley  down 
to  the  Kishwaukee.  Down  to  the  site  of  Rockford  the  valley  was  wide ;  at 
Rockford  the  river  found  its  way  through  the  constriction  noted  above,* 
but  farther  south  it  found  itself  in  the  wide  valley  where  the  Camp  stands. 
Since  the  old  valley  southeast  of  the  Kishwaukee  had  been  filled  with  drift, 
the  new  stream  left  the  course  of  its  predecessor  a  little  below  the  site  of 
Camp,  and  took  its  present  course  to  the  southwest.  This  course  was 
chosen  because  it  was  the  lowest  line  of  escape  for  the  waters  in  the  valley 
above.  Since  this  new  course  was  chosen,  the  stream  has  deepened  and  wid- 
ened this  part  of  its  valley,  but  has  not  had  time  to  make  it  so  large  as  the 
older  part  farther  north.  This  is  why  the  wider,  older  part  of  the  valley 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Kishwaukee,  is  succeeded  by  a  narrower  and 
younger  part  below. 

The  older  part  of  the  valley  to  the  north  probably  was  not  deepened 
much  during  the  time  of  erosion  which  followed  the  melting  of  the  Illi- 
noian ice-sheet,  because  the  river  in  the  old  part  of  its  valley  could  not  cut 
below  the  level  of  the  channel  in  the  new  part,  farther  down  the  stream; 
but  the  narrow  part  of  the  valley  at  Rockford  has  been  widened  notably 
by  the  wear  of  the  stream,  since  the  disappearance  of  the  Illinoian  ice- 
sheet. 

3.„    The  third  chapter  in  the  history  of  this  valley  came  much  later, 


3Leverett,   Frank,   U.   S.   Geological   Survey   Monograph   XXXVIII,    1899. 

*There  are  some  complicated  details  connected   with  the  re-establishment  of  the   course   of  the 
river  through  the  narrow  part  of  the  valley  at  Rockford,  which  are  purposely  omitted. 


HISTORY   OF    THE   LAND  47 

and  in  this  chapter  which  helps  to  explain  the  extraordinary  flood  plain  of 
the  Pecatonica. 

It  has  been  stated  (p.  42)  that  in  the  last  (the  Wisconsin)  glacial  epoch 
an  ice-sheet  approached  this  area  from  the  east  and  north  (fig.  21),  but 
did  not  reach  it  except  at  the  south  edge  of  the  area  shown  on  the  Kirkland 
map.  The  front  of  the  Wisconsin  ice-sheet  crossed  Rock  River  about  16 
miles  north  of  the  State  line,  and  a  large  volume  of  water  from  it  flowed 
down  the  valley.  This  swollen  river  carried  quantities  of  gravel  and  sand 
which  were  deposited  south  of  the  edge  of  the  ice.  These  deposits  built 
up  the  bottom  of  the  valley  to-  the  level  of  the  terrace  on  which  Camp 
Grant  stands.  This  valley  plain  of  gravel  and  sand,  the  former  flood  plain 
of  the  river,  is  higher  to  the  north  and  lower  to  the  south,  as  the  plain  of 
a  southward  flowing  river  should  be.  The  thickness  of  the  gravel  and  sand 
which  the  stream  deposited  at  this  time  is  not  known,  but  it  was  no  more 
than  a  small  part  of  the  deep  drift  filling  of  the  valley,  probably  not  so  much 
as  50  feet. 

4.  Since  the  ice  of  the  Wisconsin  glacial  epoch  disappeared,  the  stream 
has  cut  its  present  narrow  and  shallow  valley  below  the  level  of  the  plain 
described  in  the  last  paragraph.  The  portions  of  that  plain  which  remain, 
constitute  the  terraces.  A  few  feet  above  the  normal  level  of  the  river, 
a  flood  plain  has  been  developed,  which  is  covered  with  water  when  the 
stream  is  in  flood.  At  some  places  there  are  low  terraces,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  high  terrace  and  the  flood  plain.  Such  terraces  were  developed 
by  the  river  as  it  lowered  its  channel  after  the  disappearance  of  the  Wis- 
consin ice-sheet. 

THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  PECATONICA 

One  effect  of  the  filling  in  the  valley  of  the  Rock  referred  to  under 
(3)  above,  was  to  obstruct  (dam  back)  every  tributary.  The  largest  of 
these  tributaries  was  the  Pecatonica,  which  joins  the  Rock  some  20  miles 
above  Camp.  If  the  drift  of  the  Illinoian  ice-sheet  filled  this  valley  to  the 
level  of  the  filling  in  the  valley  of  the  Rock,  the  relations  of  the  two  valleys 
after  the  melting  of  this  ice-sheet  may  have  been  much  as  now.  But  the 
latest  filling  of  the  larger  valley  had  a  pronounced  effect  on  its  large 
tributary  from  the  west.  If  in  the  last  glacial  epoch  the  Pecatonica  had 
been  as  well  supplied  with  gravel  and  sand  as  the  Rock,  it  would  have 
filled  up  its  valley  as  the  Rock  did;  but  the  Pecatonica  River  heads  off  to 
the  northwest,  and  did  not  receive  water  from  the  melting  ice-sheet,  except 
by  way  of  the  Sugar  River.  The  Pecatonica  therefore  brought  down  much 
less  sediment  than  the  Rock,  and  did  not  fill  its  valley  to  the  same  level. 
Obstructed  by  the  filling  in  the  valley  to  which  it  led,  the  lower  part  of  the 
valley  of  the  Pecatonica  became  a  lake,  in  which  was  deposited  mud  brought 
in  by  the  river  and  its  tributaries. 


48  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP    CAMP   GRANT 

Similar  conditions  existed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  of  Sugar 
River,  though  this  stream  received  water  from  the  edge  of  the  ice  to  the 
north,  and  carried  much  sand. 

Since  the  Wisconsin  ice-sheet  melted,  Rock  River  has  deepened  its  chan- 
nel 35  to  50  feet  below  the  level  of  its  old  flood  plain  (the  present  terrace). 
This  deepening  has  been  enough  to  draw  off  the  water  of  the  lake  which 
once  covered  the  Pecatonica  flats,  but  not  enough  to  drain  its  former  bot- 
tom thoroughly.  The  result  is  that  most  of  the  great  flat  which  represents 
the  old  lake  bottom  is  covered  with  water  when  the  river  is  in  flood,  and 
remains  wet  and  muddy  long  after  the  floods  recede.  Through  this  flat, 
the  river  has  a  very  low  gradient  and  a  very  sluggish  current.  Except  in 
times  of  flood,  the  current  is  so  slow  that  it  can  carry  no  sediment  coarser 
than  mud.  As  already  noted,  the  stream,  the  muddy  channel,  and  the  wide 
valley  flat  which  is  impassable  in  times  of  flood,  are  serious  obstacles  to 
travel,  except  along  roads  which  are  graded  up  several  feet  above  the  plain.. 

THE  VALLEY  OP  THE  KISHWAUKEE 

The  history  of  the  valley  of  the  Kishwaukee  and  its  two  branches  is 
similar  to  the  history  of  the  Rock.  The  North  and  South  branches  of  this 
river  follow  valleys  which  antedated  the  Wisconsin  glacial  epoch.  These 
valleys,  like  the  valley  of  the  Rock  above  Camp,  were  not  completely  filled 
with  the  drift  of  the  Illinoian  ice-sheet, — the  last  which  covered  them. 
A  well  in  Belvidere,  in  the  valley  of  the  Kishwaukee,  showed  122  feet 
of  drift.  The  valley  therefore  was  much  deeper  than  now  before  the 
deposition  of  the  drift,  and  doubtless  was  nearly  as  low  as  that  of  the  Rock, 
to  which  probably  it  was  tributary.  Drift  is  known  to  be  98  feet  deep  at 
one  point  in  the  valley  of  the  South  Branch  at  Kingston.  The  former 
continuation  of  these  valleys  below  their  junction  is  not  known,  for  beyond 
that  point  the  old  valley  was  filled.  It  doubtless  led  to  the  old,  drift-filled 
valley  of  the  Rock  somewhere  to  the  southwest,  and  its  position  probably 
was  south  of  the  present  Kishwaukee  River,  below  the  junction  of  its  two 
branches. 

When  the  Illinoian  ice-sheet  disappeared,  the  waters  which  followed 
the  valleys  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee  found  themselves  with- 
out a  well-defined  valley  below  the  point  where  they  join.  They  chose  the 
lowest  course  open  to  them,  which  was  down  the  present  course  of  the  river 
to  the  valley  of  the  Rock  just  below  Camp.  From  the  junction  of  the  two 
branches  down  nearly  to  Camp,  the  valley  of  the  Kishwaukee  is  like  the 
valley  of  the  Rock  below  the  mouth  of  the  Kishwaukee;  that  is,  it  is  a 
valley  which  was  not  occupied  by  a  large  stream  before  the  drift  was; 
deposited.  It  is  a  youthful  valley,  as  shown  by  its  narrowness  and  its 
steep  slopes. 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LAND  49 

Like  the  valley  of  the  Rock,  the  valleys  of  the  North  and  South 
branches  of  the  Kishwaukee  carried  waters  from  the  Wisconsin  ice-sheet, 
the  edge  of  which  was  just  east  of  the  area  of  the  Belvidere  and  Kirkland 
maps  (fig.  21).  Like  the  valley  of  the  Rock,  both  these  valleys  were  filled 
to  some  extent  by  gravel  and  sand  which  the  streams  from  the  ice  carried. 
It  is  probable  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  122  feet  of  drift  known  to  exist 
in  the  valley  at  Belvidere,  was  deposited  at  this  time.    Most  of  it  is  older. 

There  is  reason  to  think  that  the  valley  of  Killbuck  Creek  which,  like 
the  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee,  carried  water  from  the  ice-sheet,  was  filled 
no  more  than  15  to  20  feet  at  this  time.  If  so,  the  valleys  of  the  North 
and  South  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee  probably  were  filled  to  some  com- 
parable extent.  Since  the  close  of  the  glacial  period,  these  streams  have 
lowered  their  channels  a  few  feet,  leaving  remnants  of  the  earlier  valley 
plain  as  terraces.  They  are  lower  than  the  corresponding  terraces  along 
the  Rock,  because  these  streams  have  deepened  their  channels  less  since 
the  last  glacial  epoch. 

Valleys  tributary  to  the  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee,  such  as  those  of 
Piscasaw  and  Coon  creeks,  were  obstructed  by  the  filling  in  the  valley  to 
which  they  led.  These  tributary  valleys  therefore  were  affected  somewhat 
as  the  Pecatonica  was  by  the  filling  in  the  valley  of  the  Rock.  This  is  at 
least  one  reason  for  the  bogginess  in  several  of  the  valleys  tributary  to 
the  North  and  South  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee. 

MINOR  VALLEYS 

The  history  of  the  valleys  of  some  of  the  smaller  streams,  such  as  those 
of  Killbuck  and  Stillman  creeks,  is  similar  to  the  history  of  the  valleys 
of  the  branches  of  the  Kishwaukee.  The  streams  occupy  valleys  left  when 
the  ice  melted.  The  valleys  of  this  class  are  large,  compared  with  the  size 
of  their  streams. 

Most  of  the  small  streams  tributary  to  the  Rock  are  in  small  valleys. 
These  valleys  have  been  developed  in  the  surface  of  the  drift  since  the 
retreat  of  the  ice.  The  surface  water  in  any  place  took  the  lowest  course 
open  to  it,  and  the  flow  began  a  valley.  The  little  valleys  begun  in  this  way 
have  been  growing  ever  since  by  the  wear  of  the  water  flowing  through 
them.  Many  of  the  tributary  valleys  east  of  the  Rock  are  cut  wholly  in 
drift,  nowhere  reaching  rock.  Others  have  been  cut  down  through  the 
drift  into  the  rock  beneath. 

Minor  Changes  of  Post-Glacial  Times 
Stream  erosion  since  the  ice  disappeared  has  been  considered  in  con- 
nection with  the  history  of  the  valleys  but  one  special  effect  remains  to  be 
noted. 


50  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

DRAINING  OP  BASINS 

In  many  places,  drift  deposited  by  glacier  ice  has  a  very  uneven 
surface,  and  one  of  its  distinctive  marks  is  the  presence  of  depressions 
without  outlets.  These  depressions  give  rise  to  lakes,  ponds  and  marshes. 
No  features  of  this  sort  are  found  on  the  upland  drift  near  Camp,  though 
there  are  a  few  marshes  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  Belvidere  area 
which  are  relics  of  former  ponds  not  yet  completely  drained.  The  reason 
for  the  absence  of  such  features  elsewhere  is  that  the  time  since  the  depo- 
sition of  the  drift  has  been  so  long  that  any  upland  lakes  and  ponds  there 
may  have  been  when  the  ice  melted,  have  been  drained  out  through  the  val- 
leys which  have  been  developed  since  that  time  by  running  water. 

The  drift  to  the  east  of  the  Belvidere  and  Kirkland  areas  has  lakes, 
ponds,  and  undrained  depressions  in  considerable  numbers.  This  drift, 
deposited  by  the  Wisconsin  ice-sheet,  is  much  younger  (p.  42)  than  that  of 
the  area  about  Camp.    In  time  its  lakes  and  ponds  will  disappear. 

WIND   WORK 

In  relatively  recent  times,  the  surface  has  been  modified  in  a  few 
places  by  the  blowing  of  sand  and  dust.  Within  the  limits  of  Camp  there 
are  several  low  mounds  and  ridges  of  sand  which  are  small  dunes.  These 
are  not  brought  out  on  the  20-foot  contour  map,  but  several  of  them  are 
shown  on  the  large-scale  map  of  the  Army  Engineers,  with  its  2-meter 
contours.  Illustrations  can  be  found  west  of  the  Kishwaukee  road,  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  Camp,  shown  on  the  large-scale  map  referred  to, 
by  closed  contours.  There  are  several  others  farther  north,  all  low  and 
inconspicuous.  Most  of  them  are  represented  on  the  large-scale  map  by 
a  single  closed  contour.  Farther  south  there  is  a  dune  half  a  mile  north 
of  the  mouth  of  Stillman  Creek.  There  is  a  little  wind-blown  sand  at 
numerous  points  on  the  southeast  side  of  Rock  River  Valley  below  the 
Kishwaukeee,  but  most  of  it  is  not  in  the  form  of  distinct  dunes.  There 
is  sand  of  similar  origin,  but  no  distinct  dunes,  at  various  points  on  the 
slope  above  the  terrace  on  the  east  side  of  Rock  River  Valley  north  of  Camp. 
In  all  these  places  the  sand  has  been  blown  up  to  its  present  position  from 
lower  levels. 

The  greatest  development  of  dune  sand  in  the  region  is  north  of  the 
Pecatonica  River,  west  of  the  Rock.  Dunes  are  here  numerous  in  an  area 
a  few  square  miles  in  extent,  some  three  miles  northwest  of  Shirland.  The 
sand  here  appears  to  have  been  blown  up  from  the  valley  of  Sugar  River 
to  the  west.  There  are  some  low  dunes  on  the  terrace  west  of  the  Rock 
north  of  Rockton,  near  the  State  line.  The  sand  of  these  dunes  probably 
came  from  the  terrace  itself. 

Wind-blown  dust  is  not  aggregated  into  dunes,  and  where  its  amount 
is  small,  it  is  not  readily  identified.    But  just  south  of  Rockton,  south  of  the 


HISTORY   OF    THE   LAND  51 

River  and  north  of  the  road  leading  west-southwest,  there  are  some  pits 
where  "molding  sand"  is  dug.  This  material,  so  fine  as  to  be  called  loam 
quite  as  properly  as  sand,  is  composed  of  dust  and  very  fine  sand  blown 
up  from  the  valley  bottom.  It  is  the  material  known  as  loess.  This  is  the 
only  good  exposure  of  typical  loess  (and  this  is  rather  coarse)  known  in 
the  region. 

In  some  parts  of  the  area  covered  by  these  maps  there  is,  on  the  upland, 
a  thin  body  of  earthy  stoneless  matter  over  the  body  of  the  drift.  It  is 
thick  enough  in  much  of  the  region  to  conceal  the  stony  character  of  the 
great  body  of  the  drift,  where  cuts  are  absent.  This  surface  earth  is  more 
clayey  and  compact  than  loess,  though  it  is  sometimes  called  by  that  name. 
Some  have  regarded  it|  as  wind-blown  dust,  and  doubtless  it  is,  in  part. 
It  is  probable  that  it  is  due  in  part  to  earth-worms  and  burrowing  insects, 
which  bring  up  earthy  matter  from  below,  but  do  not  bring  up  pebbles  or 
larger  stones.  In  so  far  as  this  is  true,  it  is  a  modified  part  of  the  drift, 
derived  from  that  beneath.    It  makes  an  excellent  soil. 

The  surface  covering  of  stoneless  or  nearly  stoneless  loam,  sandy  in 
some  places  and  clayey  in  others,  is  well  seen  in  the  trenches  near  Camp. 
It  is  thinner  on  slopes,  and  thicker  where  the  surface  is  nearly  flat.  In  the 
trenches  there  is  2  to  5  or  6  feet  of  this  surface  material,  and  an  average  of 
these  figures  is  about  its  average  thickness  for  the  whole  region.  It  is, 
as  a  rule,  more  sandy  where  the  underlying  drift  is  sandy,  and  more  clayey 
where  the  underlying  drift  is  compact. 

LEACHING 

Much  of  the  material  of  the  drift  was  derived  from  limestone,  and 
limestone  is  dissolved  slowly  by  water  percolating  through  it.  Down  to 
depths  of  something  like  4  feet,  on  the  average,  the  calcareous  matter  of 
the  drift  has  been  leached  out.  The  leached  part  is  reddish-brown  or  buff 
in  color,  while  the  unleached  part  below,  where  the  drift  is  clayey,  has  a 
grayish  or  bluish  or  in  places  a  pinkish  tone,  quite  unlike  the  part  above. 
This  distinction  can  be  seen  in  most  fresh  cuts.  It  is  well  seen,  for  example, 
in  some  of  the  terrace  cuts  close  to  Camp.  A  dark  line  marks  the  base  of 
the  leached  zone  in  a  ravine  exposure  near  the  headquarters  of  the  Officers ' 
Training  School. 

SUMMARY  OP   RECENT   CHANGES 

Since  the  ice  melted,  the  greatest  change  in  the  surface  has  been 
brought  about  by  the  erosion  of  running  water,  which  has  deepened  the 
valleys  which  the  ice  did  not  fill,  has  developed  many  new  valleys  of  small 
isize,  and  has  drained  out  all  depressions  without  outlets  which  the  ice 
left.     The  wind  has  been  but  a  minor  factor — almost  negligible  except  in 


52  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

a  few  places.  In  very  recent  times,  man  himself  has  become  an  important 
factor  in  the  geological  processes  now  in  operation.  By  cutting  the  timber 
and  plowing  the  land,  he  has  greatly  facilitated  erosion,  both  by  water  and 
by  wind,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  erosion  has  been  many  times  as  rapid 
since  the  region  was  tilled,  as  before.  Cultivation  of  the  land,  too,  has 
facilitated  the  passage  of  water  through  the  soil,  and  ditching,  tiling,  and 
the  drilling  of  many  wells,  have  helped  to  lower  the  level  of  ground  water. 


CHAPTER  IV— NATURE  AND  MAN  IN  THE  ROCKFORD  REGION 

The  Black  Hawk  War 

During  the  first  century  of  the  history  of  the  United  States  (1776- 
1876),  the  country  experienced  one  year  of  actual  war  for  every  three 
years  of  peace.  This  was  due  largely  to  the  numerous  Indian  wars  of  the 
period,  one  of  the  more  important  of  which,  called  the  Black  Hawk  War 
after  the  leader  of  the  hostile  Indians,  was  staged  (1832)  partly  in  the 
Rock  Valley. 

The  beautiful  lands  along  Rock  River  were  valued  highly  by  the  In- 
dians. The  streams  abounded  in  fish;  woodland  and  prairie  game  was 
abundant.  There  were,  for  example,  many  deer,  otter,  muskrats,  squirrels, 
wild  geese,  ducks,  prairie  chickens,  and  quail.  The  sites  of  Belvidere  and 
Rockford  appear  to  have  been  favorite  resorts  of  the  Indians.  At  Belvidere 
there  was  a  large  burial  place  for  their  dead,  and  in  Rockford  there  are 
several  large  Indian  mounds. 

In  1804  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  ceded  their  lands  along  Rock  River  and 
elsewhere  east  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  United  States,  with  the  under- 
standing that  they  could  live  and  hunt  on  them  until  they  were  sold  by  the 
government.  Before  the  lands  were  sold,  however,  settlers  invaded  the 
southern  part  of  the  region  and  their  presence  caused  trouble  on  more  than 
one  occasion.  Finally  in  the  autumn  of  1830,  while  most  of  the  Indians 
were  on  a  hunting  trip,  some  whites  occupied  their  ancient  village  near  the 
mouth  of  Rock  River,  and  expelled  the  old  men  and  women  left  there. 
Finding  the  village  in  possession  of  the  whites  on  returning  in  the  spring 
of  1831,  the  Sacs  under  Black  Hawk  attacked  it,  destroyed  houses  and 
corn,  drove  off  stock,  and  threatened  the  settlers  with  death  if  they  re- 
mained in  the  region.  Regulars  and  militia  were  sent  to  the  seat  of  the 
trouble,  the  overawed  Indians  crossed  the  Mississippi,  and  Black  Hawk  and 
other  chiefs  made  a  treaty  in  which  they  agreed  never  to  cross  to  the  east 
side  of  the  Mississippi  without  permission  from  the  President  of  the  United 
States  or  the  Governor  of  Illinois.  In  the  spring  of  1832,  however,  the 
Black  Hawk  band  and  some  of  their  allies  (800  to  1,000,  all  told)  returned 
to  the  Rock  River  country  to  attack  the  frontier  settlements. 

Illinois  volunteers  and  later  United  States  regulars  took  the  field  to 
repel  the  Indians.1     The  volunteers  gathered  at  Dixon's  Ferry  on  Rock 


Nearly  6000  troops  were  employed  in  the  war  (regulars,  1341;  volunteers,  4638).  Abraham 
Lincoln  was  one  of  the  first  to  volunteer.  Others  who  served  were  Jefferson  Davis;  Zachary 
Taylor,  who  commanded  the  American  forces  in  northern  Mexico  in  the  Mexican  War  and  later 
Was  President;  Winfield  Scott,  who  served  in  the  War  of  1812,  the  Mexican  War  (crushing  the 
Mexican  armies  in  a  series  of  brilliant  battles  in  1847),  and  the  Civil  War;  and  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston,   one  of  the  leading  generals  of  the  Confederate  army. 

(53) 


54  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

River  (site  of  city  of  Dixon),  whence  Major  Stillman  was  sent  up  the 
east  side  of  Rock  River  with  some  275  mounted  volunteers  to  Old  Man's 
Creek  (now  Stillman  Creek;  Kings  map),  " where  it  is  supposed  the  hostile 
Sac  Indians  are  assembled,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  all  cautious  measures 
to  coerce  said  Indians  into  submission."  Stillman  encamped  at  nightfall 
(May  14)  in  the  timber  on  the  north  side  of  the  creek,  close  to  the  site  of 
the  village  of  Stillman  Valley  (Kings  map).  Soon  three  Indians  ap- 
peared in  his  camp  bearing  a  white  flag,  while  five  others  were  discovered 
on  a  neighboring  hill  where  they  might  watch  and  report  how  the  flag  of 
truce  was  received.  Despite  the  efforts  of  several  officers  to  restrain  them, 
a  number  of  the  rangers  mounted  their  horses  and  started  in  pursuit  of  the 
Indians  on  the  hill,  who  fled  toward  Black  Hawk's  camp,  situated  between 
three  and  four  miles  away,  northeast  of  the  mouth  of  Stillman  Creek. 
Black  Hawk,  with  the  40  or  50  of  his  followers  at  hand,  attacked  with 
spirit  the  first  of  the  pursuing  whites  to  reach  the  vicinity  of  his  camp. 
These  reckless  rangers,  fearing  that  they  now  were  opposed  by  the  800  or 
more  warriors  known  to  belong  to  Black  Hawk's  command,  turned  and  fled 
to  their  own  camp,  pursued  in  turn  by  the  Indians.  With  few  exceptions, 
Stillman 's  entire  command  now  became  panic  stricken,  and  fled  at  once 
across  the  creek  and  on  toward  Dixon's  Ferry.  With  a  view  to  covering 
the  retreat  of  the  fugitives,  Captain  Adams  and  a  small  party  made  a  stand 
on  a  hillside  south  of  the  creek  and  fought  till  all  were  killed. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  village  of  Stillman  Valley  there  is  a  monument 
where  these  soldiers  were  buried  by  members  of  a  relief  party  from  Dixon's  Perry. 
The  lesson  of  "Stillman's  Defeat,"  as  of  various  battles  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  such  as  Bladensburg  and  Bull  Run,  is  the  great  danger  involved  in  using 
untrained  troops  in  military  operations. 

Following  Stillman's  Defeat,  the  Indians  scoured  the  country,  mas- 
sacring men,  women,  and  children  wherever  found.  In  June  United  States 
regulars  arrived,  and  Black  Hawk  was  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle  at 
Kellogg 's  Grove  (Southwestern  Stephenson  County).  He  then  withdrew 
his  warriors  into  the  swamps  of  the  region,  and  for  a  time  engaged  in  raids 
against  various  settlements.  The  war  closed  with  battles  in  Wisconsin 
on  the  banks  of  the  Wisconsin  and  Mississippi  rivers  (July  21  and  Aug.  2), 
The  Indians  were  defeated  and  dispersed.3 

The  Settlement  of  the  Region 
The  Black  Hawk  War  freed  Rock  Valley  from  all  danger  of  Indian 
attack,  and  directed  the  attention  of  Eastern  people  to  it.    Books,  pamph- 
lets, and  many  newspaper  articles  were  written  on  "the  newly  discovered 
paradise."     The  scenery  along  the  river,  the  fertile  soils,  and  the  favor- 


3As  a  result  of  experiences  in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  Congress  created   (1833)   as  a  part  of  the 
regular  army  a  regiment  of  dragoons,  thereby  completing  the  three  arms  of  the  service. 


NATURE  AND   MAN  55 

able  climate  all  were  described  with  enthusiasm,  and  in  1834-5  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Rockford  district  began. 

SOURCES  OP  SETTLERS;  EMIGRANT  TRAVEL 

Most  of  the  early  settlers  of  the  area  came  from  New  England  and  New 
York,4  whence  a  large  emigration  was  in  progress.  Less  numerous  elements 
in  the  early  population  represented  various  other  states  and  other  parts  of 
Illinois.  There  were  some  early  settlers  of  foreign  birth.  Argyle,  for  ex- 
ample, was  settled  by  Scotch. 

Some  of  the  Rock  River  pioneers  came  all  the  way  from  the  East  by 
land.  Most  of  them  crossed  New  York  State  on  the  Erie  Canal,  and  at 
Buffalo  took  passage  by  sailing  vessel  or  steamer  for  Chicago,  the  "gate- 
way" of  the  Rock  Valley  and  of  Northern  Illinois  in  general.  The  overland 
journey  from  Chicago  commonly  was  made  in  cloth-covered  wagons  called 
"prairie  schooners"  from  their  fancied  resemblance,  when  viewed  from 
afar,  to  vessels  at  sea.  A  State  road  was  located  in  1836  between  Chicago 
and  Galena;5  it  crossed  the  North  Branch  of  the  Kishwaukee  at  Belvidere 
and  Rock  River  at  Rockford.6  It  became  the  leading  emigrants'  route 
from  Chicago  to  Rockford  and  vicinity,  and  the  most  traveled  stage  road 
across  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  Rockford  was  connected  with 
Chicago  by  railroad  in  1852,  and  the  next  year  the  last  railroad  link  was 
finished  between  Chicago  and  New  York  City.  The  railroad  promptly 
caused  the  disappearance  of  the  prairie  schooner  and  stage  coach,  and  has 
been  all-important  in  the  later  life  of  the  Rockford  area. 

GROWTH   OF   POPULATION;   FACTORS  INFLUENCING  RATE  OF   SETTLEMENT 

By  1840  the  combined  population  of  Winnebago  and  Boone  counties, 
largely  within  the  area  covered  by  this  report,  was  a  little  more  than  6300. 
In  1850,  it  was  more  than  19,000,  which  was  nearly  half  the  population  of 
the  entire  Rock  River  country. 

For  some  years  the  following  conditions  tended  to  retard  settlement: 
(1)  Though  the  land  of  "Winnebago  and  Boone  counties  was  surveyed  in 
1836-7,  it  was  not  offered  for  sale  till  1839,  settlers  meanwhile  occupying 
it  as  ' '  squatters. ' '  Trouble  over  claims  resulted,  due  in  part  to  the  presence 
of  "land  sharks"  and  "claim  jumpers."  (2)  A  band  of  outlaws  known  as 
"Prairie  Pirates"  operated  in  the  Rock  Valley,  particularly  in  Ogle 
County  and  southward.     They  robbed  cabins,  bought  moveable  property 


4Of  871  of  the  early  settlers  of  Rockford,  470  were  from  New  York  and  237  from  New  Eng- 
land. The  birth  places  of  102  of  the  early  settlers  of  Rockton  are  known;  more  than  half  were 
New  Englanders.  As  a  rule  the  pioneers  from  the  northeastern  states  were  characterized  by 
energy,  thrift,  and  ingenuity,  traits  induced  in  no  small  degree  through  generations  by  the  geo- 
graphic conditions  of  the  New  England-New  York  area,  and  from  the  outset  they  impressed  the 
stamp  of  their  institutions  and  ideals  on  the  life  of  the  new  community. 

5Galena,  near  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  state,  was  the  metropolis  of  the  Illinois  lead- 
mining  district  and  a  place  of  much  importance,  having  a  large  river  trade  with  St.  Louis  and 
the  South. 

*State  Street,  in  Rockford,  takes  its  name  from  the  old  road,  of  which  it  was  a  part. 


56  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP  GRANT 

with  counterfeit  money,  and  stole  horses.  The  band  was  said  to  have  mem- 
bers scattered  from  Wisconsin  to  St.  Louis  by  way  of  Rock  Valley,  and 
stolen  property  was  passed  from  one  "station"  to  another  until  it  reached 
some  distant  market  where  it  could  be  sold.  In  a  number  of  counties  mem- 
bers of  the  band  held  office  and  prevented  the  punishment  of  their  com- 
panions by  process  of  law.  At  last  a  company  of  "regulators"  took  the 
law  into  its  own  hands  and  executed  two  of  the  "pirates"  in  Ogle  County 
in  1841.  This  stopped  the  operations  of  the  desperadoes  in  the  Rockford 
region,  and  reassured  the  settlers.  (3)  The  local  markets  for  surplus  farm 
produce  were  totally  inadequate  (for  a  time  there  was  almost  no  oppor- 
tunity to  sell,  save  to  incoming  settlers) ,  and  it  was  difficult  and  expensive 
to  haul  it  to  Galena  or  Savanna  on  the  Mississippi  or  to  Chicago,  particular- 
ly if  the  roads  chanced  to  be  wet. 

After  1842  settlement  proceeded  more  rapidly.  The  people  of  Rock- 
ford  and  vicinity  took  a  leading  part  in  pushing  the  plan  for  a  Chicago- 
Rockford-Galena  railroad,  which  would  solve  the  problem  of  transporting 
the  products  of  the  region  to  a  satisfactory  market.  Several  sawmills  and 
grist  mills  had  been  built.  They  met  a  pressing  need  of  the  settlers,  and 
helped  to  stimulate  immigration.  Rockford,  by  1850  the  "metropolis  of 
the  northern  prairies,"  attracted  many  people,  and  formed  the  best  local 
market  in  the  entire  valley.  The  earlier  settlers  sent  glowing  reports  of 
the  region  to  friends  and  relatives  in  the  East,  many  travelers  and  writers 
praised  it,  and,  thus  advertised,  the  Rock  River  country  became  known  more 
and  more  widely  for  its  attractiveness  and  its  remarkable  fertility. 

The  following  statements  concerning  the  region  are  typical:  "Rockford  on 
the  Rock  River  was  a  beautiful  spot,  and  the  whole  country  in  the  neighborhood 
so  far  as  we  could  see  presented  [1845]  great  temptations  to  the  emigrant." 

"ROCK  RIVER  COUNTRY.  No  portion  of  the  West  is  remarked  [1852]  with 
more  favor  and  admiration  than  this  and  it  holds  about  the  same  relation  that  the 
Genesee  country  does  to  the  East." 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    EARLY    POPULATION 

In  locating  their  land  claims  the  pioneer  farmers  of  the  Rockford 
region  were  influenced  chiefly  by  (1)  the  character  of  the  land  and  its 
vegetation,  (2)  the  location  of  towns  or  the  sites  of  proposed  towns,  and 
(3)  highways. 

(1)  Other  things  equal,  timbered  lands  or  tracts  containing  both  wood- 
land and  prairie  were  preferred  to  treeless  areas.  Timber  was  needed  for 
buildings,  fences,  and  fuel,  and  afforded  some  protection  against  the  bitter 
winds  which  in  winter  sweep  across  the  open  prairies.  Moreover,  to 
settlers  from  the  northeastern  states,  which  originally  were  forested 
throughout,  the  prairies  with  their  tough  sod  and  matted  roots  presented 
unknown  problems  in  tillage.    Most  of  the  native  timber  was  restricted  to 


NATURE   AND   MAN  57 

the  vicinity  of  the  streams,  where  there  was  some  protection  against 
droughts  and  prairie  fires,  but  there  were  sizable  belts  and  groves  of  trees 
some  distance  from  water  courses,  as,  for  example,  west  of  Rockton,  and 
east  and  southeast  of  Rockford.  Some  of  the  wooded  lands  were  too  wet 
to  be  tilled  without  expensive  drainage  (e.  g.  along  the  Pecatonica),  and 
some  were  infertile  (e.  g.  in  the  sand-hill  district  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  area) .  Such  tracts  were  avoided  for  the  most  part.  Since  much 
of  the  area  was  treeless,  the  settlers  of  necessity  shortly  undertook  the  con- 
quest of  the  prairies. 

In  the  end,  the  settlement  and  cultivation  of  the  area  were  facilitated  by  the 
preponderance  of  prairie.  The  prairie  farmer  was  saved  the  arduous  labor  of 
felling  the  forest,  and  the  flattish  prairie  land,  unencumbered  with  the  stumps 
and  roots  of  trees,  was  from  the  outset  adapted  to  the  use  of  labor-saving  machin- 
ery. A  writer  of  vision  said  in  1837:  "The  greatest  objection  made  to  the  Rock 
river  country  is  the  alleged  scarcity  of  timber  *  *  *  but  the  time  will  come, 
and  the  day  is  not  far  distant,  when  emigrants  will  rush  to  the  large  prairies 
with  almost  as  much  eagerness  as  they  now  avoid  them."  Ten  years  later  (1847) 
another  writer  said:  "A  prejudice  formerly  existed  against  prairie,  but  it  has 
worn  away.  The  prairie  is  now  universally  preferred  for  purposes  of  cultivation, 
to  the  timbered  lands." 

The  terraces  of  Rock  River,  though  for  the  most  part  without  timber, 
appear  to  have  been  settled  relatively  early. 

(2)  Proximity  to  a  town  or  the  site  of  a  proposed  town  was  highly 
desirable,  since  as  they  grew  the  towns  would  afford  markets  for  farm 
produce,  the  advantages  of  schools  and  churches,  and  would  increase  land 
values  in  the  vicinity. 

(3)  Land  along  the  early  roads  (especially  the  State  road)  and  near 
the  line  of  the  proposed  Chicago-Galena  railroad  was  in  demand  for  obvious 
reasons. 

In  connection  with  the  influence  of  towns  and  highways  it  is  note- 
worthy that  in  1840  the  agricultural  population  of  Rockford  Township 
was  considerably  more  than  two-fifths  the  total  population  of  Winnebago 
County,  outside  the  village  of  Rockford. 

In  general,  the  wet  lands,  the  distinctly  infertile  lands,  and  the  lands 
most  remote  from  towns  and  railroads,  were  settled  last. 

EARLY  ROCKFORD 

Rockford,  begun  in  1834,  became  the  largest  city  in  the  region  (indeed, 
in  the  entire  Rock  Valley)  largely  because  of  its  geographic  advantages. 
Here,  as  already. noted,  the  State  road  (1836)  and  later  the  first  railroad 
in  northern  Illinois  crossed  Rock  River,  then  considered  navigable.  Rock- 
ford was  roughly  midway  between  the  termini  of  the  great  land  route/ 


Consequently  it  was  called  "Midway"  for  a  time,  the  much  happier  name,  Rockford,  replacing 
it  not  later  than  1837. 


58  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 

Chicago  to  Galena,  in  the  midst  of  a  region  of  pronounced  fertility.  Thus 
it  became  a  way-station  and  transfer  point  on  the  through-routes,  and  a  col- 
lecting and  distributing  point  for  the  surrounding  farming  country,  its 
tributary  area  steadily  expanding  as  agricultural  settlement  proceeded 
and  its  leadership  among  the  early  rival  towns  increased.  In  early  days 
the  river  could  be  forded  at  Rockford  by  persons  on  horseback  or  in  lightly 
loaded  wagons  ;8  provision  was  made  for  a  ferry  by  the  County  Commission- 
ers in  1836;  and  a'  low,  wooden  bridge  was  opened  for  travel  July  4, 
1845 — "a  time  of  great  rejoicing." 

Another  major  factor  in  the  growth  of  Rockford  since  the  middle 
1840  's  has  been  the  Water  power  made  available  by  the  rapids  in  the  river. 
The  first  dam  built  to  utilize  the  power  was  completed  in  1845.  Parts  of 
it  were  carried  away  by  the  river  in  1846  and  1847,  and  in  1851  the  entire 
dam  went  out.  Two  years  later  a  more  substantial  dam  (replaced  by  the 
present  concrete  dam  in  1910)  was  completed  on  the  line  of  the  old  ford, 
where  the  solid  limestone  formed  an  excellent  foundation.  This  improve- 
ment and  the  coming  of  the  railroads  were  leading  influences  in  the  mak- 
ing of  the  modern  city,  discussed  in  later  pages. 

The  terrace  flat  afforded  an  excellent  site  for  a  city.  Drainage  was, 
good,  excavation  was  easy,  good  building  stone  was  readily  available 
(quarries  were  opened  at  an  early  date),  and  there  was  enough  timber  in 
the  vicinity  to  supply  for  a  time  the  demand  for  lumber. 

The  first  to  locate  land  claims  on  the  site  of  Rockford  were  Germanicus 
Kent  and  Thatcher  Blake,  two  natives  of  New  England  who,  in  1834,  left 
Galena  in  search  of  a  desirable  place  for  settlement.  Kent  proposed  to 
build  a  sawmill,  and  so  sought  a  place  where  water-power  and  timber  were 
available.  Descending  the  Pecatonica  and  Rock  rivers  in  a  canoe,  they 
landed  near  the  mouth  of  a  creek  afterward  named  Kent  Creek  (Rockford 
map),  where  both  located  claims.  In  1835,  Kent,  as  planned,  built  a  dam 
and  a  sawmill  on  the  creek.  From  the  outset,  therefore,  Rockford  was  a 
manufacturing  center. 

Before  the  close  of  1835,  some  27  people  had  gathered  in  the  infant 
settlement,  some  of  whom  had  built  their  homes  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river.9  In  1839,  when  the  population  was  235,  Rockford  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  and  was  chosen  as  the  county  seat — events  which  helped  to  stim- 
ulate further  growth.  In  1841  the  population  was  800 ;  in  1845,  1278 ;  and 
in  1850,  2093.  Rockford  had  outstripped  all  rivals,  and  enjoyed  undisputed 
leadership  among  all  the  towns  along  Rock  River. 


8The  rock-bottom  ford  from  which  the  city  is  named  was  ruined  in  1845  when  an  attempt 
was  made  to  improve  the  navigation  of  the  river  at  Rockford.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  Indians 
used  the  ford,  and  that  they  called  it  the  "rock-ford."  The  river  also  was  forded  at  times  opposite 
Auburn     Street. 

"For  years  there  is  said  to  have  been  keen  rivalry  between  East  Rockford  and  West  Rockford. 
The  former  scored  heavily  when  it  secured  the  postoffice,  but  this  triumph  was  offset  when  the  first 
railroad  located  its  depot  on  the  west  side. 


NATURE  AND   MAN  59 

OTHER  EARLY  TOWNS 

Belvidere,  the  seat  of  Boone  County,  dates  from  1835.  It  grew  very 
little  till  after  1840,  and  in  1850  had  a  population  (1003)  less  than  half 
that  of  Rockford.  Its  importance  .in  early  days  was  due  largely  to  its 
location  at  a  water-power  site  on  the  North  Branch  of  Kishwaukee  River, 
where  the  latter  was  crossed  by  the  State  road.  Little  power  was  available, 
however ;  the  river  was  not  navigable ;  Boone  County  was  little  more  than 
half  as  large  as  Winnebago  County,  and  was  settled  less  rapidly.  These 
things  largely  account  for  the  slower  growth  in  early  years  of  Beividere, 
as  compared  with  Rockford. 

Rockton,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  area,  and  Byron,  in  the  extreme 
southwest  (both  dating  from  1835),  are  the  only  survivors  of  an  interesting 
group  of  river  towns — would-be  rivals  of  Rockf ord.  Rockton  was  a  response 
to  the  water-power  there  available.  In  early  days  its  mills  attracted  trade 
from  a  large  area.  As  Rockford,  with  superior  advantages,  forged  ahead, 
it  from  time  to  time  drew  people  from  Rockton,  and  at  the  last  census 
(1910)  the  population  of  Rockton  was  less  than  it  had  been  fifty  years 
before.  Byron,  also  a  mere  village,  is  on  a  terrace  at  a  big  bend  of  the 
river,  where  in  early  days  a  busy  ferry  served  the  needs  of  trade  and  travel 
between  Rockford  and  towns  toward  the  south.  Among  the  river 
towns  which  have  disappeared  were  Winnebago  and  Kishwaukee,10  both 
"boomed"  as  rivals  of  Rockford.  Winnebago,  situated  a  short  distance 
north  of  Rockford  on  land  now  within  the  limits  of  the  latter,  aspired  to  be 
the  county  seat,  and  began  to  decay  as  soon  as  Rockford  was  chosen  (1839) 
for  that  purpose.  Kishwaukee,  at  the  junction  of  the  Kishwaukee  and  Rock 
rivers,  also  died  in  its  infancy,  though  two  or  more  stores,  a  blacksmith 
shop,  a  large  building  begun  for  a  seminary,  and  a  number  of  dwellings 
had  led  its  friends  to  believe  it  would  survive.  It  is  strange  that  these 
early  town-builders  failed  to  see  that  the  combination  of  the  water-power 
and  the  ford  across  the  river  at  Rockford  made  successful  competition  with 
that  place  impossible. 

Most  of  the  villages  of  the  area  not  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graphs came  into  existence  as  local  shipping  points  following  the  advent 
of  the  railroads. 

Conditions  of  Pioneer  L*fe 
early  privations 
Isolation  subjected  the  earlier  pioneers  of  the  region  to  many  priva- 
tions, and  limited  severely  their  household  and  personal  effects.     Many 
homes  were  rough  log  houses,  some  of  which  contained  only  one  room. 
Prairie  homes  in  some  cases  were  built  of  saplings,  and  thatched  with 


10These  should  not  be  confused  with  the   existing  towns   of  the  same  names,   neither   of  which 
is  on  the  river. 


60  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

straw  or  prairie  grass.  Not  a  few  homes  contained  for  a  time  no  furniture 
save  that  made  by  the  pioneers  themselves.  Springs  were  not  numerous, 
and  until  wells  were  dug  many  settlers  found  it  difficult  to  get  an  adequate 
supply  of  good  water. 

The  older  settlements  in  which  supplies  could  be  purchased  were  re- 
mote, roads  throughout  Northern  Illinois  were  poor,  and  most  streams 
were  unbridged.  The  prices  in  the  Rockford  district  of  commodities 
wagoned  from  these  outside  markets  therefore  were  high.  For  a  time,  even 
the  foodstuffs  soon  produced  in  abundance  around  Rockford  were  scarce 
and  expensive.  Thus  flour  is  said  to  have  sold  for  twenty  dollars  a  barrel, 
and  pork  for  thirty.  Sugar  was  twenty-five  cents  a  pound.  Salt  from 
Chicago  sold  at  Byron  for  fifteen  dollars  a  barrel.  Moreover,  most  of 
the  pioneers  had  little  money  and  many  of  them  were  scarcely  able  to  pur- 
chase absolute  necessities.  Fortunately,  wild  game  supplied  an  abundance 
of  meat. 

At  first  there  were  no  roads  and  little  intercourse  took  place  between 
the  scattered  settlements,  especially  in  winter.  News  from  the  outside 
world  was  received  at  infrequent  intervals.  As  late  as  1837  mail  from 
Chicago  was  received  at  Rockford  only  once  a  week.  The  monotony  of 
the  broad  stretches  of  unbroken  prairie,  the  uncomfortable  houses,  the 
coarse  food,  the  lack  of  society,  and  the  absence  of  the  comforts  and  conr 
veniences  to  which  most  of  the  settlers  had  been  accustomed  in  the  East, 
all  contributed  to  the  irksomeness  and  loneliness  of  pioneer  life.  Some 
of  the  older  settlers,  completely  discouraged,  returned  to  the  East. 

PIONEER  FARMING 

Almost  from  the  first  the  enterprising1  farmers  of  the  Rockford 
region  used  the  woodland  as  a  base  for  the  conquest  of  the  prairie.  The 
iirst  plowing  of  the  heavy  prairie  sod  was  a  slow  and  laborious  task,  par- 
ticularly since  the  plows  introduced  by  the  first  settlers  were  not  suited 
to  the  work.  If  the  later  comer  hired  a  professional  "sod  breaker"  to 
plow  his  land,  the  cost  ($1.50  to  $2.50  or  more  an  acre)  exceeded  the  cost 
of  the  land  itself,  if  purchased  from  the  government  ($1.25  an  acre). 
The  best  time  to  "break"  the  prairie  was  late  spring  or  early  summer, 
and  thereafter  little  could  be  grown  until  the  sod  had  rotted.  The  first 
season,  therefore,  most  settlers  planted  only  a  little  "sod  corn"  and  some 
garden  vegetables.  The  second  year  the  land  was  fit  for  tillage,  though 
in  many  cases  full  crops  were  not  obtained  until  the  third  season.  Prairie 
sod  broken  in  the  autumn,  after  the  grass  was  ripe,  remained  tough  and 
troublesome  for  several  years. 

The  stock  of  the  pioneers  was  grazed  in  summer  on  the  unbroken 
prairie,  and  this  necessitated  fences  for  the  protection  of  the  crops.  For 
the  farmers  without  woodland,  the  fencing  problem  remained  for  years 


NATURE   AND    MAN  61 

a  serious  one.  It  finally  was  solved  when  wire  fencing,  introduced  about 
1850,  became  cheap  enough  to  be  generally  available. 

Corn  and  wheat  were  the  staple  crops  of  the  pioneer  farmer.  Corn 
was  easy  to  cultivate,  commonly  returned  large  yields,  and  had  a  long 
harvest  season — an  important  consideration  in  the  early  days,  when  labor 
was  scarce.  It  was  stored  easily,  readily  prepared  for  food,  and  was 
highly  nourishing  for  animals  and  man.  Corn  was  raised  largely  or 
wholly  for  consumption  on  the  farm;  it  was  too  cheap,  in  proportion  to 
weight  and  bulk,  for  transportation  to  distant  markets.  Wheat,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  grown  more  and  more  extensively  for  sale.  Oats  were 
raised  much  less  than  wheat  in  early  days. 

In  1849,  the  farmers  of  Winnebago  and  Boone  counties  raised  more 
than  564,000  bushels  of  wheat,  more  than  440,000  bushels  of  corn,  and 
about  330,000  bushels  of  oats.  These  figures  are  impressive  when  it  is 
remembered  that  no  land  was  cultivated  in  either  county  before  1835, 
and  that  the  region  still  was  without  railroads. 

MARKETS 

The  inadequacy  in  early  days  of  local  markets,  and  the  expense  and 
difficulty  of  wagon  trade  with  the  Mississippi  Eiver  towns  and  Chicago 
have  been  noted  (pp.  56  and  60) .  The  trip  to  the  river  with  a  load  of  grain 
took  a  week  or  more,  and  that  to  the  lake  at  least  twice  as  long.  Wheat 
often  brought  only  25  to  37%  cents  a  bushel,  and  sometimes  less,  delivered 
at  Chicago.  Nevertheless,  produce  appears  generally  to  have  been  higher 
and  merchandise  lower  in  Chicago  than  at  the  towns  on  the  Mississippi. 
This  probably  was  due  to  the  superior  connection  of  Chicago  with  the 
East  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Erie  canal,  as  against  the  round- 
about eastern  connections  of  Galena  and  Savanna,  through  Pittsburgh 
or  New  Orleans,  by  rivers  whose  navigation  was  uncertain.  Each  autumn 
after  harvest,  when  the  roads  were  best,  many  farmers  from  the  vicinity 
of  Rockford  made  the  tiresome  journey  to  Chicago  with  35  or  40  bushels 
of  grain  to  a  load.  At  that  season  people  living  along  the  State  road  be- 
tween Eockford  and  Chicago  not  infrequently  saw  two  hundred  east- 
bound  wagons  pass  in  a  single  day,  all  loaded  with  grain.  The  most  dif- 
ficult part  of  the  road  was  that  through  the  low,  usually  wet  prairie  near 
Chicago.  "Farmers  of  the  Rock  River  *  *  *  having  hauled  their 
wheat  *  *  *  to  this  Slough  of  Despond,  frequently  could  get  it  no 
farther."  The  farmer  who  reached  Chicago  did  not  actually  realize  for 
his  wheat  even  the  low  prices  indicated  above,  because  of  the  expense  of 
the  trip,  and  the  value  of  the  time  of  team  and  driver.  Indeed,  as  a 
writer  familiar  with  the  wagon  trade  put  it,  the  farmer  in  many  cases 
found  "he  was  not  much  further  along  than  if  he  had  remained  quietly 
at  home."     Another  said,  "It  is  a  fact  well  known,  and  frequently  ad- 


62  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 

verted  to,  that  a  farmer  near  Rock  river  expends  as  much  in  getting  his 
wheat  to  market  as  all  other  expenses  of  ploughing,  sowing,  harvesting 
and  threshing."  The  early  merchants  of  the  Rockford  region  of  course 
experienced  similar  difficulty  and  expense  in  hauling  goods  from  Chicago. 


The  high  cost  of  transportation  induced  the  early  building  of  mills 
for  the  manufacture  of  prime  necessities  for  which  the  raw  material  was 
available.  Lumber  was  in  great  demand  for  flooring,  doors,  frame  build- 
ings, and  other  uses,  and  sawmills  were  erected  at  various  water-power 
sites  to  manufacture  lumber  from  such  timber  as  was  available  in  the 
vicinity.  Kent's  sawmill,  built  on  Kent  Creek  at  Rockford  in  1835  (p.  58), 
was  the  first  in  the  region.  Three  sawmills  were  built  in  Rockford  fol- 
lowing the  completion  (1845)  of  the  first  dam  in  the  river.  Belvidere 
built  its  first  sawmill  in  1836;  Roscoe  and  Byron,  in  1837;  and  Rockton, 
in  1838. 

It  was  unsatisfactory  and  laborious  to  pound  grain  on  a  hominy 
block,  or  to  grind  it  in  hand  mills.  The  long  tiresome  trip  to  a  grist 
mill  on  the  lower  Fox  River  or  at  Ottawa  (on  the  upper  Illinois  River) 
was  equally  objectionable.  Accordingly  grist  mills  were,  next  to  sawmills, 
the  first  manufacturing  plants  established.  Indeed,  the  first  lumber  turned 
out  by  the  sawmill  at  Belvidere  was  used  to  complete  a  gristmill  already  be- 
gun, to  which  settlers  came  from  far  and  near  in  such  numbers  that 
frequently  they  had  to  wait  an  entire  day,  and  sometimes  two  days,  to  be 
served.  The  original  mill  at  Belvidere  was  replaced  by  a  larger  one  in 
1845,  and  a  third  was  built  the  same  year.  Byron  (in  1838),  Rockton 
(1839),  and  Rockford  (1846)  presently  followed  the  lead  of  Belvidere  in 
establishing  grist  mills. 

Almost  every  blacksmith  doubtless  made  a  few  plows,  and  perhaps 
other  implements.  A  small  plow  factory  was  opened  at  Belvidere  in 
1840.  At  Rockford  a  carding  and  fulling  mill  and  an  iron  foundry  were 
established  in  the  1840 's.  The  pioneer  period,  however,  witnessed  only 
the  beginning  of  industrial  development,  and  that  along  only  a  few,  simple 
lines  which  required  relatively  little  capital  and  met  a  heavy  local  demand. 

Improvement  of  Travel  and  Transportation 

the  road  system  of  the  area 

The  narrow  trails  of  the  Indians  were  of  little  or  no  value  to  the 
first  settlers,  who  followed  the  shortest  practicable  lines  across  country 
to  their  objectives.  Some  of  these  tracks,  especially  those  which  focused 
on  the  early  villages,  were  followed  by  wagons  till  roads  were  worn  along 
them.  Such  roads  must  have  been  poor  even  under  the  best  weather 
conditions,   and  some  of  the  unbridged  streams   and  sloughs   presented 


NATURE   AND    MAN  63 

serious  obstacles.  The  surveying  of  the  area  and  the  settlement  and 
fencing  of  more  and  more  of  the  land  caused  the  abandonment  of  most  of 
the  earlier  roads.  In  response  to  the  flattish  topography  of  most  of  the 
area,  the  modern  road  system  conforms  almost  everywhere  to  the  rectan- 
gular pattern  of  the  land  survey  (pp.  10-11).  For  years  little  was  done  to 
improve  the  dirt  roads  within  the  area.  The  energies  of  the  people  were 
directed  rather  toward  facilitating  trade  and  travel  between  the  area  and 
outside  markets  by  other  means. 

It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  in  and  about  Rockford  the  direction 
of  many  streets  and  roads  is  influenced  by  the  course  of  the  river.  In 
the  older  parts  of  the  city,  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  the  streets  are 
parallel  to  the  river  or  at  right  angles  to  it,  without  regard  to  the  points 
of  the  compass.11  When  in  later  subdivisions  streets  were  laid  out  along 
north-south  and  east-west  lines,  they  joined  the  older  streets  at  awkward 
angles. 

IMPORTANCE    OP    IMPROVED    TRANSPORTATION    TO    OUTSIDE    MARKETS 

Clearly  the  greatest  need  of  the  Rockford  region  from  the  beginning 
of  settlement  had  been  adequate  and  cheap  transportation  facilities  con- 
necting it  with  outside  markets.  The  prices  of  farm  produce  would  be 
low  and  those  of  merchandise  from  outside  markets  would  be  high  until 
faster  and  cheaper  transportation  was  provided.  Without  improved  trans- 
portation, manufacturing  on  a  large  scale  was  impossible.  The  early 
settlers,  realizing  keenly  that  satisfactory  transportation  facilities  alone 
could  solve  their  economic  difficulties  and  assure  to  the  region  prosperity 
and  rapid  development,  supported  every  scheme  for  internal  improvement 
that  seemed  likely  to  afford  them  easier  access  to  the  markets  of  the  out- 
side world. 

The  Mississippi  River  towns,  Chicago,  and  Milwaukee  also  were  interested 
greatly  in  the  improvement  of  transportation  for  the  upper  Rock  River  country, 
since  they  were  competitors  for  the  trade  of  the  region.12  Though  Chicago  mer- 
chants enjoyed  most  of  the  wagon  trade  with  the  people  of  the  Rockford  district, 
as  already  noted,  improvements  in  transportation  might  divert  the  trade  to  rival 
markets.  For  years  it  was  uncertain  in  what  direction  finally  the  bulk  of  the 
rapidly  increasing  surplus  produce  of  the  Rockford  country  would  move. 

ROCK  RIVER  AS  A  HIGHWAY 

For  years  before  the  settlement  of  the  area  began  (since  1818  at  the 
latest)  Rock  River  had  been  listed  among  the  navigable  rivers  of  Illinois. 


uThat  the  streets  at  right  angles  to  the  river  on  one  side  are  not  opposite  the  corresponding 
streets  on  the  other  side  appears  to  be  due  to  the  early  jealousy  between  West  Rockford  and  East 
Rockford  (foot  note  9,  p.  58),  as  a  result  of  which  the  surveyor  was  not  allowed  to  alter  his  original 
plat  on  the  west  side  (though  it  is  said  no  building  improvements  would  have  been  affected)  with 
a  view  to  bringing  the  streets  into  alignment. 

12Milwaukee  was  concerned  most  with  the  trade  of  the  Beloit-Janesville  section  of  Rock 
Valley. 


64  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

Some  of  the  early  writers  declared  it  was  navigable  for  three  hundred 
miles,  though  the  basis  for  their  statements  is  not  apparent.13  As  a  result 
of  such  published  statements,  many  people  may  have  settled  along  Rock 
River  in  the  belief  that  it  would  become  an  important  commercial  highway. 
Experience  soon  showed  them,  however,  that  except  at  flood  stages  its 
navigation  would  be  impeded  seriously,  if  not  rendered  wholly  imprac- 
ticable, by  several  rapids.  At  the  rapids  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  the 
water  was  said  to  be  l  i  not  often  more  than  eighteen  inches  deep. ' ' 

In  the  spring  of  1838  a  light  draft  steamboat,  aided  by  high  waters, 
managed  with  difficulty  to  ascend  the  river  from  the  Mississippi  as  far 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Pecatonica.  Intense  interest  was  aroused  by  the  trip, 
and  the  hope  was  renewed  that  the  river  might  be  navigated  regularly. 

A  resident  of  Kishwaukee  wrote  to  the  editor  of  a  Chicago  paper  as  follows 
concerning  the  coming  of  the  steamboat:  "Much  anxiety  has  been  felt  for  some 
time  past  by  the  people  on  Rock  river  on  this  subject,  and  thus  at  length  their 
trembling  hopes  have  been  realized,  and  the  fact  established  that  this  beautiful 
river  can  now  and  will  hereafter  be  navigated  by  steamboats  *  *  *  as  she 
[the  steamboat]  gallantly  plowed  her  way  up  this  clear  and  noble  stream,  [she] 
was  hailed  with  acclamations  of  applause  by  the  crowd  of  enterprising  inhabitants 
who  thronged  our  shores." 

In  1839  a  steamboat  purchased  for  the  Rock  River  trade  was  unable 
to  pass  the  rapids  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  was  forced  to  engage 
in  trade  on  the  Mississippi.  These  events  of  1838  and  1839  served  at  least 
to  stimulate  agitation  for  the  improvement  of  the  river.  A  river-improve- 
ment convention  was  held  at  Rockford  early  in  1840,  and  Congress  was 
petitioned  for  a  grant  of  public  lands  along  Rock  River,  the  proceeds  of 
their  sale  to  be  used  in  improving  the  stream.  Nothing  came  of  the  peti- 
tion. 

The  arrival  of  another  steamboat  at  Rockford  in  1844  renewed  in- 
terest in  the  navigation  of  the  river.  Another  meeting  was  held  at  Rock- 
ford, followed  by  a  convention  at  Sterling.  This  time  State  aid  was  sought,, 
and  in  1845  an  act  was  approved  for  the  improvement  of  the  river  with 
funds  to  be  obtained  by  a  special  tax  levied  in  certain  counties  along  the 
river.  Work  was  undertaken  at  Rockford  (foot  note  8,  p.  58),  among 
other  places,  but  nothing  of  value  was  accomplished. 

Again  in  1846  a  convention  was  held  at  Rockford,  which  sought  the 
aid  of  Congress  in  opening  a  waterway  for  large  boats  from  Lake  Michigan 
to  the  Mississippi,  by  way  of  Rock  River.  The  scheme  involved  a  canal 
from  the  lake  to  Rock  River,  and  the  canalizati^  of  the  latter. 

A  strong  demand  for  a  canal  to  connect  Milwaukee  with  the  upper  Rock 
River,  50  miles  or  so  to  the  west,  had  developed  in  Southern  Wisconsin  more  than 


13The  possibility  of  navigating  the  middle  and  lower  river,  at  least  at  times,  was  demonstrated 
in  1830,  when  lead,  apparently  from  mines  in  southwestern  Wisconsin,  was  taken  down  the  river. 
John  Dixon,  founder  of  the  town  on  Rock  River  named  from  him,  wrote  the  editor  of  the  Miner's 
Journal  at  Galena  as  follows  on  June  24,  1830:  "The  first  flat  boat  built  on  the  Pickatolica 
[Pecatonica]  passed  here  this  day,  bound  to  St.  Louis  with  one  thousand  pigs  of  lead  (70,000  lbs.) 
for  Col.  William  S.  Hamilton." 


NATURE   AND   MAN  65 

a  decade  before  this.  A  land  grant  had  been  made  in  aid  of  the  enterprise,  the 
line  of  the  canal  had  been  surveyed,  and  about  a  mile  of  it  had  been  dug.  There, 
for  various  reasons,  work  stopped,  and  the  project  had  come  into  more  or  less 
widespread  disfavor  before  the  Rockford  convention  of  1846  advocated  a  Lake 
Michigan-Rock  River  canal.  In  December,  1844,  the  Madison  Argus  said:  "A 
Canal  *  *  *  is  a  fine  affair  where  it  is  really  needed.  But  because  a  canal  con- 
necting navigable  waters  like  Lake  Erie  and  the  Atlantic  ocean  has  paid  for  itself, 
and  brought  the  state  a  large  revenue,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  a  canal  con- 
necting Lake  Michigan  and  Rock  River  would  be  equally  productive  in  proportion 
to  cost.  A  canal  is  to  be  made  from  Milwaukee  to  the  Rock  River  and  there  it 
stops.  It  connects  at  the  east  end  with  an  extensive  lake  coast,  and  so  far  it  is 
very  well;  but  what  is  there  at  Rock  River?  Neither  an  ocean,  nor  a  lake,  nor 
even  a  navigable  river.  There  are  neither  steam-boats  nor  flat-boats  running  on 
Rock  River  anywhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  proposed  termination  of  the 
canal,  and  the  river  will  not  admit  of  this  kind  of  navigation  to  any  advantage. 
*  *  *  The  business  of  the  territory  naturally  extends  east  and  west,  and  any 
attempt  to  turn  it  north  and  south  into  the  channels  of  our  shallow  river  must 
be  an  up-stream  undertaking." 

Early  in  January,  1845,  the  following  appeared  in  the  Chicago  Daily  Journal: 
"The  project  for  constructing  the  Milwaukee  and  Rock  River  Canal,  appears  to  be 
dead.  At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  citizens  of  Granville  [Wisconsin]  it  was  re- 
solved that  a  petition  be  presented  to  the  Legislature,  praying  for  a  forfeiture  of 
the  charter,  and  a  reduction  of  the  price  of  the  Canal  Lands  to  $1.25  per  acre, 
with  pre-emption  rights  to  actual  settlers." 

As  in  1840,  Congress  in  1846  failed  to  undertake  the  improvement 
of  the  river.  Two  years  later  a  railroad  to  connect  Chicago  and  Rockford 
was  begun,  and  with  railroad  transportation  assured,  the  question  of  im- 
proving Rock  River  became  relatively  unimportant.  Nevertheless,  the  pro- 
ject has  been  revived  from  time  to  time,  notably  in  1865  and  1899. 

Some  of  the  schemes  for  the  improvement  by  the  Government  of  Rock 
River  were  impracticable,  but  Congress  has  spent  vast  sums  on  many 
projects  much  less  promising.  The  occasion  for  regret  is  not  its  restraint 
in  the  case  of  Rock  River  but  its  lack  of  restraint  in  the 
case  of  many  others.  Had  the  river  been  improved  in  pre-railroad 
days,  it  would  have  been  for  a  time  the  great  commercial  outlet  of  the 
region.  Most  of  the  surplus  produce  would  have  gone  by  flatboat  or  steam- 
boat to  St.  Louis  and  the  South,  rather  than  by  wagon  to  Chicago.  Navi- 
gation doubtless  would  have  declined  to  small  proportions,  however,  after 
railroads  from  Chicago  reached  the  river.  Chicago  was  the  natural  market 
for  the  region  (in  part  for  reasons  given  on  p.  61).  Railroad  transporta- 
tion was  in  various  ways  as  superior  to  transportation  by  river  steamer, 
as  the  latter  was  to  transportation  by  wagon.  The  later  history  of  traffic 
on  the  rivers  of  the  Interior  (even  the  Mississippi)  is  a  record  of  the 
triumph  of  the  locomotive  over  the  steamboat. 

In  later  years  certain  sections  of  the  river  between  obstructing  dams 
have  been  navigated  to  slight  extent  by  a  few  small  boats  engaged  in  local 
trade. 


66  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 

ROCKFORD  STAGE  LINES 

The  opening  of  the  State  road  (p.  55)  from  Chicago,  through  Elgin 
and  Belvidere,  to  Rockford,  and  westward  to  Freeport  and  Galena,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  advent  of  the  stage  coach.  The  State  road,  more- 
over, continued  to  be  by  far  the  most  important  stage  route  of  the  region 
until  in  the  early  1850  's  the  railroad  drove  its  coaches  out  of  business. 
The  minor  stage  routes  opened  in  the  region  will  not  be  considered  here. 
Eegular  "runs"  between  Chicago  and  Rockford  were  begun  not  later 
than  January  1,  1838.  "On  that  day  the  arrival  of  the  stage  coach  in 
Rockford  attracted  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the  village,  and  large 
numbers  came  from  the  surrounding  country  to  witness  the  spectacle." 
Small  wonder  they  were  greatly  interested:  the  establishment  of  stage- 
coach service  was  a  long  step  toward  overcoming  the  isolation  of  the  Rock- 
ford region,  so  far  as  travel  was  concerned.  In  1840  the  stage  coach  company 
advertised  a  twenty-four  hour  schedule  for  the  Chicago-Rockford  service, 
which  was  tri-weekly.  The  fare  was  $5.  The  heavy  coaches  were  drawn 
by  four  horses,  changed  at  intervals  of  about  fifteen  miles.  A  year  later 
there  was  daily  service  each  way. 

A  man  who  traveled  by  stage  from  Galena  to  Chicago  over  the  old  State  road 
in  the  autumn  of  1841,  said  "The  means  of  traveling  had  by  this  time  so  much 
improved,  that  instead  of  the  jolting,  hard-seated,  two-horse  wagon,  we  had  a 
regular  Frink  &  Walker  daily  stage  line,  with  comfortable  coaches."  Apparently, 
however,  the  coaches  were  comfortable  only  in  comparison  with  the  wagon,  for 
he  added:  "The  coaches  had  three  inside  seats,  calculated  to  hold  three  pas- 
sengers each.  The  back  seats  were  the  most  comfortable,  as  you  had  something 
to  lean  against — the  others  were  seats  of  torture  during  a  long  journey.  The 
stages  did  not  stop  at  night,  but  drove  right  along.  When  morning  came,  the 
passengers,  if  they  had  been  able  to  sleep  at  all,  would  wake  up  stiff,  chilled 
through,  and  tired;  and  after  an  indifferent  breakfast  would  have  to  endure  an- 
other day  and  night  of  torture.  My  recollection  is  it  took  us  three  days  and  two 
nights  to  reach  Chicago  [from  Galena]." 

Neither  the  roads  nor  the  coaches  were  much  improved  as  time  passed.  Said 
one  who  journeyed  to  Chicago  in  May,  1844:  "My  journey  to  Chicago  was  most 
unpleasant,  by  reason  of  the  late  heavy  rains,  which  still  continued.  These  so 
softened  the  rich  soil,  that  the  public  coach  was  detained  in  a  slough  during  a 
whole  night;  the  weather  cold  and  our  feet  wet,  and  our  person  chilled.  Next 
morning,  at  eight,  we  were  drawn  out  of  our  distressing  condition,  by  four  yoke 
of  oxen."  In  1852  a  traveler  who  had  come  by  train  to  Cherry  Valley,  the  end  of 
the  pioneer  railroad  in  process  of  construction  from  Chicago  to  Rockford,  ex- 
pressed the  following  opinion  of  "staging":  "At  Cherry  Valley  private  vehicles 
and  coaches  were  in  readiness  to  convey  travellers  to  their  destination;  those 
bound  to  Galena  were  consigned  to  the  latter,  and  were  soon  jolting  over  roads, 
respecting  which  they  were  assured  every  few  miles  that  they  were  'just  passing 
over  the  worst.'  It  will  be  a  joyful  era  in  civilization  when  those  heavy,  lumber- 
ing, leathery  horrors  are  banished  from  the  traveller's  knowledge." 


NATURE   AND    MAN 


67 


THE  RAILROADS 

Early  in  1836  a  charter  was  granted  to  the  Galena  and  Chicago  Union 
Railroad  Company,  to  build  a  railroad  from  Chicago  to  Galena.  The 
project  was  thought  to  be  justified  by  the  existing  and  prospective  com- 
merce of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  upper  Mississippi  River,  which  the  road 
would  connect.  Particularly  it  would  provide  a  shorter,  better  outlet  for 
the  lead  of  the  Galena  region,  then  for  the  most  part  sent  by  river  to  New 


Fig.  24.— Sketch  map  showing  the  railroads  of  Rockford  and  the  surrounding 


region. 

Orleans  for  export— a  difficult  matter  when  the  water  was  low  at  the 
rapids  of  the  Mississippi  (at  Rock  Island  and  Keokuk).14    The  road  also 

"So  unsatisfactory  was  the  river  route  that  some  lead  had  been  wagoned  to  Chicago  the  first 
in  1829  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Galena  Advertiser,  in  announcing  the  initial  trip  to 
■Chicago,  found  it  desirable  to  explain  where  the  latter  was:  ''Mr.  Soulard's  wagon  and  mule  team 
returned,  a  few  days  since,  from  Chicago,  near  the  southernmost  bend  of  Lake  Michigan;  to  which 
place  it  had  been  taken  across  the  country,  with  a  load  of  lead.  This  is  the  first  wagon  that  has 
ever  passed  from  the  Mississippi  river  to   Chicago." 


68  THE  ENVIBONMENT  OP   CAMP   GRANT 

would  provide  an  outlet  for  the  infant  settlements  of  the  country  traversed 
(including  those  of  the  Rockford  region),  would  stimulate  further  set- 
tlement, and  would  enhance  land  values.  After  some  work  had  been 
done  on  the  road  in  and  near  Chicago  the  undertaking  temporarily  was 
abandoned. 

The  people  of  the  Rockford  region  took  a  leading  part  in  the  cam- 
paign to  revive  the  railroad  project,15  and  at  last  the  construction  of  the 
road  was  undertaken  in  1848,  under  conditions  assuring  success.  The 
Galena  and  Chicago  Union  not  only  was  the  first  railroad  of  the  Rockford 
region,  but  the  first  Chicago  railroad  and  the  first  one  of  importance  in 
Illinois.  It  reached  the  Des  Plaines  Valley  in  1848,  Elgin  in  1850,  Bel- 
videre  in  the  spring  of  1852,  and  East  Rockford  the  following  summer. 
"On  Monday,  August  2,  1852,  a  train  on  the  Galena  &  Chicago  Union  rail- 
road arrived  in  East  Rockford.  Its  advent  was  signalized  by  the  ringing 
of  bells  and  the  firing  of  cannon."  The  following  year  the  road  was  ex- 
tended to  West  Rockford  (upon  the  completion  of  the  bridge  across  the 
river)  and  on  to  Freeport  (fig.  24;  the  Galena  and  Chicago  Union  is  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern).  An  arrangement  having  been  made  to  con- 
nect with  the  Galena  Branch  of  the  Illinois  Central  at  Freeport,  the  road 
was  not  built,  as  originally  planned,  to  Galena.  As  a  result  the  road 
through  Rockford  became  a  branch  of  the  main  line  of  the  Galena  and 
Chicago  Union,  which  extended  almost  due  west  from  Chicago  to  the 
Mississippi  River  at  Fulton  (reached  in  1855).  The  Galena  and  Chicago 
Union  Company  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Company  were  con- 
solidated in  1864  under  the  latter  name. 

It  will  not  be  practicable  to  consider  here  in  detail  the  later  rail- 
roads of  the  Rockford  region.  The  road  from  Belvidere  to  Beloit  (fig.  24) 
was  built  in  1853  as  a  branch  of  the  Galena  and  Chicago  Union,  with  a 
view  to  securing  the  trade  of  the  Beloit  region,  and  to  connecting  with  a 
proposed  Beloit-Madison  railroad.  In  1859  a  road  was  completed  from 
Rockford  to  Harvard  (as  part  of  a  Rockford-Kenosha  line),  whence  there 
was  connection  with  Chicago  by  way  of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern, 
which,  from  the  outset,  managed  the  Rockford-Harvard  road  (fig.  24). 
For  live  years  Rockford  interests  benefited  greatly  from  the  sharp  com- 
petition between  the  rival  roads  leading  to  Chicago.  Then,  as  already 
noted,  the  Galena  and  Chicago  Union  was  consolidated  with  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern.  As  early  as  1855  an  attempt  was  made  to  secure  a 
north-south  railroad  through  Rockford  from  Beloit  to  Mendota  (some 
fifty  miles  to  the  south  of  Rockford,  on  the  Illinois  Central).  Through  its 
northern  connections  this  road  would  afford  Rockford  access  to  the  lumber 
of  Wisconsin,  and  through  its  southern  connections  access  to  Illinois  coal 


"A  meeting  in  aid  of  the  proposed  road  was  held  at  Belvidere  in  the  winter  of  1840-41,  and. 
several  were  held  at  Rockford,  chief  among  them  the  "railroad  convention"  of  1846,  attended  by- 
more  than  three  hundred  delegates. 


NATURE  AND   MAN  69 

iields.  This  enterprise  failed,  however,  and  not  till  1875  was  a  road  built 
toward  the  south.  It  connected  Rockford  and  Rochelle  (fig.  24) .  This  line 
(now  owned  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy),  also  is  used  by 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  as  far  as  Davis  Junction,  where  it 
crosses  the  main  line  of  the  "St.  Paul"  from  Chicago  to  Omaha.  At 
Holcomb  it  crosses  the  Chicago  Great  Western.  At  Flag  Center 
(fig.  24)  it  connects  with  the  main  line  of  the  "Burlington"  from  Chicago 
to  Minneapolis,  and  at  Rochelle  the  latter  crosses  the  main  line  of  the 
"Northwestern"  from  Chicago  to  Omaha.  Direct  rail  connection  be- 
tween Rockford  and  the  coal  mining  district  south  of  Mendota,  which  the 
railroad  promoters  of  1855  sought  to  provide,  is  completed  by  a  "St.  Paul" 
line  which  extends  south  from  Steward  (fig.  24)  on  the  "Burlington." 
The  "St.  Paul"  road  which  extends  north  from  Rockford  meets  at  Rock- 
ton  an  important  line  of  that  system  extending  from  Milwaukee  to  Kan- 
sas City.  The  Illinois  Central  (fig.  24),  though  it  came  to  Rockford 
relatively  late  (1888),  has  the  shortest  line  between  Rockford  and  Chicago; 
it  also  connects  Rockford  and  Omaha.  The  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Gary 
(fig.  24)  is  an  outer-belt  freight  line,  extending  from  Rockford  southeast 
to  Momence  (near  the  Indiana  line)  across  numerous  roads  which  focus 

on  Chicago. 

The  interurban  electric  lines  connecting  Rockford  with  Beloit,  Free- 
port,  Belvidere,  and  points  eastward  doubtless  form  only  the  nucleus  of 
the  interurban  system  which  in  the  future  will  center  at  Rockford. 

Progress  Since  the  Advent  op  Railroads 
the  railroads  and  the  new  era 

The  advent  of  the  railroad  solved  at  last  the  transportation  problem 
of  the  Rockford  region,  and  inaugurated  a  new  era  of  remarkable  develop- 
ment. 

(1)  The  railroads  freed  the  farmers  of  the  area  from  the  time-con- 
suming and  expensive  haul  to  outside  markets.  Other  things  equal,  they 
therefore  realized  a  larger  profit  on  their  surplus  produce,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  cost  of  merchandise  from  without  was  lowered  materially. 
Particularly  noteworthy  is  the  fact  that  the  railroads  made  available 
high-grade  pine  lumber  at  reasonable  prices,  for  lumber,  as  already  noted 
(p.  62),  was  one  of  the  great  needs  of  settlers  on  the  prairies. 

(2)  The  unoccupied  lands  of  the  area  suited  to  farming  were  set- 
tled rapidly.  Largely  as  a  result,  the  total  population  of  Winnebago  and 
Boone  counties  increased  from  about  19,000  in  1850  (p.  55)  to  more  than 
36,000  in  1860,  the  greatest  gain  of  any  census  decade  in  their  history.  Es- 
sentially all  the  desirable  farm  lands  of  the  area  had  been  occupied  by 


70  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

1860,  and  since  then  the  rural  population  has  changed  but  little  in  num- 
bers.16 

(3)  The  railroads  brought  new  life  and  energy  to  the  towns  through 
which  they  passed,  and  gave  a  new  impetus  to  almost  every  branch  of 
business.  Rockford  profited  most,  because  its  natural  advantages  were 
greatest  and  its  railroad  facilities  best.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1852.  This  event,  doubtless  a  consequence  in  part  of  the  increased  activity 
which  the  pioneer  railroad  had  induced,  itself  contributed  to  the  growth 
of  the  following  years.  The  population  of  Rockford  increased  more  than 
three-fold  between  1850  and  1860  (1850,  2093;  1860,  6979).  Belvidere 
more  than  doubled  its  population  in  the  same  time  (1850,  1003;  1860, 
2446).  Until  1852  Belvidere  had  been  confined  to  the  north  side  of  the 
river,  but  when  the  Galena  and  Chicago  Union  railroad  was  located  some 
distance  south  of  the  river,  building  began  in  the  vicinity  of  the  station, 
and  in  time  the  business  section  was  transferred  largely  to  that  side  of  the 
stream.  On  the  advent  of  the  railroads  several  villages  were  founded  as 
shipping  points  for  grain  and  stock.  Winnebago,  platted  in  1853  on  the 
completion  of  the  pioneer  road  through  the  area,  is  an  example.  Located 
on  sites  without  natural  advantages,  these  places  remain  mere  farm  vil- 
lages, serving  as  collecting  and  distributing  points  for  the  surrounding 
country. 

(4)  In  agriculture  the  first  great  effect  of  railroad  transportation 
was  the  increased  production  of  grain.  The  amount  produced  in  1859  was 
almost  twice  that  produced  in  1849  (p.  61).  The  unfenced  area  used  for 
grazing  stock  decreased  as  the  area  devoted  to  grain  increased,  and  soon 
"  open-range "  grazing  ceased.  Railroad  facilities  tended  to  restrict  the 
raising  of  swine  whenever  the  price  of  corn  was  high  in  the  East.  There 
appears  to  have  been  a  considerable  decrease  in  the  number  of  swine  in 
the  middle  fifties,  when,  because  of  the  Crimean  "War,  corn  as  well  as  wheat 
was  high.  Later,  the  railroads  became  an  important  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  dairy  industry  of  the  region,  by  making  possible  daily  ship- 
ments of  milk  to  Chicago.  Without  railroads,  the  industry  could  have 
been  developed  only  with  a  view  to  supplying  local  markets. 

(5)  The  railroads  increased  greatly  the  value  of  land  and  of  other 
property.  According  to  a  statement  made  in  1854,  the  "  valuation ' '  of 
Winnebago  and  Boone  counties  virtually  doubled  between  1850  and  1853, 
the  year  in  which,  as  already  noted  (p.  68),  the  first  railroad  was  completed 
across  the  counties. 

(6)  The  railroads  made  practicable  the  use  of  coal  and  steam  power 
in  manufacturing,  the  assembling  of  widely  scattered  raw  materials,  and 


"The  large  gain  in  the  aggregate  population  of  Winnebago  County  since  1860  has  been  due  to 
the  rapid  growth  of  Rockford,  while  the  moderate  increase  in  Boone  County  has  been  due  to  the 
leisurely  growth  of  BeWidere  (7253  in  1910). 


NATURE   AND   MAN  71 

the  extensive  distribution  of  manufactured  products,  and  so  have  been 
fundamental  factors  in  the  industrial  development  of  later  years. 

(7)  The  railroads  have  influenced  in  large  measure  the  higher  life 
of  the  people  of  the  area,  for  they  have  been  a  chief  factor  in  the  material 
development  on  which  notable  progress  in  social,  educational,  and  other 
lines  has  been  based. 

AGRICULTURE 

Little  need  be  added  to  what  already  has  been  said  concerning  agri- 
culture. Next  to  railroads,  improved  farm  machinery  was  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  facilitating  the  remarkable  agricultural  development 
which  began  in  the  early  1850 's.  Drills,  mowing  machines,  reapers, 
threshing  machines,  and  other  labor-saving  machines  then  were  coming 
into  general  use,  and  they  increased  notably  the  acreage  which  could  be 
tiUed. 

As  already  noted  (p.  61),  wheat  was  the  great  money  crop  of  early 
days.  During  the  1870  ?s  the  amount  produced  decreased  greatly,  and  in 
later  years  little  has  been  grown.  Reduced  yields  due  to  exploitive  farm- 
ing, the  ravages  of  the  chinch  bug,  and  inability  to  compete  with  the  then 
new  wheat  lands  of  the  Northwest,  were  leading  reasons  for  the  decline 
of  the  wheat  industry  of  the  area.  As  the  wheat  crop  diminished,  the 
production  of  oats  and  corn  increased  enormously,  and  they  remain  the 
great  crops.  Corn,  it  is  interesting  to  note,  has  been  a  staple  crop 
throughout  the  history  of  the  region.  Hay  is  an  important  crop.  Truck 
farming  is  important  near  Rockford. 

Relatively  little  attention  in  this  area  had  been  given  to  raising  sheep 
until  the  Civil  War,  by  creating  a  heavy  demand  for  wool  to  be  used  in 
manufacturing  clothing  for  troops,  brought  high  prices  and  made  the 
business  very  profitable.  Soon  after  the  war,  sheep  raising  for  various 
reasons  declined  in  the  Rockford  region.  In  later  years  the  industry  again 
has  assumed  greater  importance,  at  least  in  the  rougher  parts  of  the 
area.  The  raising  of  swine  has  been  an  important  phase  of  farming  in 
the  area,  especially  since  the  1870 's.  The  number  of  swine  has  varied 
greatly  from  time  to  time,  however,  partly  in  response  to  variations  in 
the  corn  crop.  One  of  the  more  significant  things  of  later  years  in  con- 
nection with  the  raising  of  cattle  in  the  area  has  been  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  milch  cows,  due  to  the  development  of  dairy  farming  (p.  70). 
Most  of  the  scattered  woodlots  of  the  area  are  used  for  pasturing  stock. 
From  the  standpoint  of  farm  forestry,  this  practice  is  unfortunate,  since 
it  interferes  with  the  growth  of  a  full  stand  of  timber. 

MODERN    ROCKFORD 

The  growth  of  Rockford  has  been  traced  to  1860  (pp.  57  and  70).  Be- 
tween 1860  and  1916  its  population  increased  eight  fold,  being  estimated 


72  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OF   CAMP   GRANT 

by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  at  more  than  55,000  in  the  latter  year.  The 
growth  of  the  last  sixteen  years  of  the  period  equaled  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding forty  years.  Rockford  in  1916  was  the  fifth  city  in  point  of  size 
in  the  State.  Since  1916,  and  particularly  since  the  location  of  Camp 
Grant  in  the  vicinity,  the  city  has  grown  with  remarkable  rapidity,  and 
its  population  is  said  now  (1918)  to  be  about  75,000.  Apart  from  its 
capable  and  progressive  population  and  the  recent  influence  of  the  Camp, 
the  reasons  for  its  substantial  growth  are  its  railroad  facilities,  its  effi- 
ciently developed  and  cheap  water  power,  its  highly  productive  tributary 
area,  and  its  rapidly-developing  manufacturing  industries  (largely  de- 
pendent on  the  other  factors  enumerated).  The  railroads,  the  water 
power,  and  the  nature  of  the  tributary  area  have  been  discussed  in  earlier 
connections.  It  remains  only  to  note  briefly  the  extent  and  character  of 
its  industries. 

Rockford,  according  to  its  Chamber  of  Commerce,  has  more  than 
250  manufacturing  establishments,  representing  an  investment  of  more 
than  $40,000,000,  which  together  employ  about  15,000  people  and  manu- 
facture products  to  the  value  of  approximately  $35,000,000  yearly.  In 
1899  the  number  of  establishments  was  159 ;  in  1904,  180 ;  and  in  1909 
(the  last  year  for  which  census  data  are  available),  205.  The  values  of 
products  in  these  years  were  in  round  numbers  $11,000,000,  $15,000,000, 
and  $22,000,000.  These  figures  reflect  a  rapid  and  consistent  growth  in 
manufacturing.  The  relative  gain  in  value  of  products  between  1904  and 
1909  (45.8%)  was  the  greatest  for  the  leading  four  manufacturing  cities 
of  the  State.  While  Rockford  has  a  great  diversity  of  manufactures,  the 
furniture  factories,  knitting  mills,  agricultural  implement  plants,  and 
foundries  and  machine  shops  are  the  more  important  groups.  The  malle- 
able iron  works  and  the  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  saddlery  also  are 
especially  noteworthy.  Its  great  manufactories  constitute  perhaps  the  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  modern  Rockford,  and  they  insure  the  city  continued 
growth  and  prosperity. 


APPENDIX 
EXPLANATION  OF  MAPS 

The  features  shown  on  these  maps  may  be  classed  in  four  groups: 
(1)  water,  including  rivers,  creeks,  and  swamps;  (2)  relief,  including 
ridges,  hills,  valleys,  and  other  elevations  and  depressions;  (3)  culture 
(works  of  man),  such  as  cities,  towns,  roads,  railroads,  and  boundaries,  as 
between  townships  and  counties;  and  (4)  areas  of  timber. 

(1)  All  water  features  are  printed  in  blue,  the  smaller  streams  and 
sditches  in  full  blue  lines,  and  the  larger  streams  in  blue  water-lining. 
Intermittent  streams — those  whose  beds  are  dry  at  least  three  months 
in  the  year — are  shown  by  lines  of  blue  dots  and  dashes.  Marshes,  of 
which  there  are  few  in  this  region,  are  shown  by  the  blue  shading.  Most 
of  the  marshes  are  in  valley  bottoms.  They  are  most  numerous  and  largest 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  Belvidere  area,  but  nearer  Camp  there  are 
some  in  the  valley  of  Killbuck  Creek. 

(2)  Relief  is  shown  by  contour  lines  in  brown.  On  the  ground,  a 
contour  passes  through  points  that  have  the  same  altitude.  One  who  fol- 
lows a  contour  will  go  neither  uphill  nor  downhill,  but  on  a  level.  The  con- 
tour lines  on  the  map  show  not  only  the  shapes  of  the  hills,  ridges,  and 
valleys,  but  also  their  elevations  above  sea-level.  The  line  of  the  sea  coast 
itself  is  the  contour  0,  mean  sea-level  being  the  datum  from  which  eleva- 
tions are  measured.  The  numbers  on  the  contours  shown  on  the  map  there- 
fore represent  elevations  above  sea-level.  The  contour  20  feet  above  sea- 
level  would  be  the  shore  line  if  the  sea  were  to  rise  or  the  land  to  sink  20 
feet.  On  a  gentle  slope  it  is  near  the  coast.  Where  successive  contour  lines 
are  close  together  they  represent  a  steep  slope ;  and  where  they  run  together 
in  one  line  they  indicate  a  cliff.  Basins  without  outlets  are  few,  and  are 
shown  by  contours  with  short  hachures  inside.  An  illustration  of  such  a 
depression  contour  may  be  seen  on  the  Kings  map,  3  to  4  miles  east  of  the 
north  end  of  Camp.  Other  illustrations  appear  along  the  railways,  as  near 
Holcomb  and  west  of  Stillman  Valley  (Kings  map),  2  or  3  miles  west  of 
Kirkland  (Kirkland  map),  and  at  several  points  along  the  Chicago  Great 
Western  Railway,  near  the  south  edge  of  the  same  map.  The  basin-like 
depressions  in  these  situations  are  due  to  the  railway  embankments  across 
shallow  depressions  which  formerly  had  outlets. 

The  manner  in  which  contour  lines  express  altitude,  form,  and  grade 
is  shown  in  figure  25.  The  sketch  represents  a  river  valley  between  two 
hills.  In  the  foreground  is  the  sea,  with  a  bay  that  is  partly  inclosed  by 
a  hooked  sand  bar.    On  each  side  of  the  valley  is  a  terrace  into  which  small 

(73) 


74  THE  ENVIRONMENT  OP   CAMP  GRANT 

streams  have  cut  narrow  gullies.  The  hill  on  the  right  has  a  rounded  sum- 
mit and  gently  sloping  spurs  separated  by  ravines.  The  spurs  are  trun-. 
cated  at  their  lower  ends  by  a  sea  cliff.  The  hill  on  the  left  terminates, 
abruptly  at  the  valley  in  a  steep  scarp.  Its  surface  slopes  down  gradually 
on  the  side  away  from  the  scarp,  forming  an  inclined  table-land,  which  is 
traversed  by  a  few  shallow  gullies.  On  the  map  each  of  these  features  is 
indicated,  directly  beneath  its  position  in  the  sketch,  by  contour  lines. 


Fig.  25. — Diagram  showing  the  relation  between  topography  as  indicated  by 
hachures  and  by  contours,  as  explained  in  the  text.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.) 

The  contour  interval  or  the  vertical  distance  in  feet  between  one  con- 
tour and  the  next  on  these  maps  is  20  feet.  Every  fifth  contour  is  heavier 
than  the  others,  and  such  contours  are  accompanied  by  figures  stating 
the  elevation  above  sea-level  which  they  represent.  The  heights  of  many 
points,  such  as  road  corners,  summits,  surfaces  of  lakes,  and  bench  marks 
(marked  B.  M.,  as  e.  g.  %  of  a  mile  east  of  the  north  edge  of  Camp),  are 
also  given  on  the  map  in  figures,  which  express  the  elevations  to  the  nearest 
foot  only.  The  horizontal  scale  of  a  contour  map,  as  well  as  its  contour 
interval,  should  be  noted.  The  scale  of  these  maps,  noted  at  the  bottom 
of  each,  is  1-62,500;  that  is,  the  map  is  1-62,500  the  size  of  the  area 
represented.  This  is  approximately  one  mile  to  the  inch.  Some  maps 
published  by  geological  surveys,  national  and  state,  have  scales  1-125,000  or 


APPENDIX  75 

even  1-250,000.    Many  of  the  maps  on  the  smaller  scales,  have  larger  con- 
tour intervals. 

Maps  prepared  expressly  for  army  purposes  have  other  scales,  and 
other  contour  intervals.  Thus  army  maps  in  the  United  States  on  a  scale 
of  1  mile  to  the  inch,  have  a  contour  interval  of  60  feet;  those  on  a  scale 
of  three  inches  to  the  mile  have  a  contour  interval  of  20  feet ;  and  those  on 
a  scale  of  12  inches  to  the  mile,  a  contour  interval  of  5  feet.  The  special 
map  of  this  region  prepared  by  the  War  Department  has  a  2-meter  contour 
interval,  doubtless  for  the  purpose  of  accustoming  the  men  in  training  to 
the  metric  system  in  use  on  the  Western  Front.  Its  scale  is  1-10,000,  or 
more  than  6  inches  to  the  mile. 

(3)  The  works  of  man  are  shown  in  black,  in  which  color  all  lettering 
also  is  printed.  Boundaries,  such  as  those  of  a  state,  county,  city,  land 
grant,  township,  or  reservation,  are  shown  by  continuous  or  broken  lines 
of  different  kinds  and  weights.  Public  and  through  roads  are  shown  by  two 
fine  parallel  lines  close  together,  and  private  and  poor  roads  by  correspond- 
ing dashed  lines.  In  villages  and  cities,  the  roads  are  close  together.  Rail- 
roads are  shown  by  single  lines  with  short  cross-bars  at  short  intervals. 
Houses  are  shown  by  small  black  squares.    Most  of  them  are  near  roads. 

(4)  Areas  of  timber  are  colored  green  on  the  maps. 

The  topographic  maps  were  made  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  in  co- 
operation with  the  War  Department  and  with  the  State  Geological  Survey 
Division.  The  special  edition  for  this  volume  was  published  by  the  State 
through  the  courtesy  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 


-^   o^\^-/uu 


